CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Social Control
Social
control is a concept that refers to the ways in which people’s thoughts,
feelings, appearance, and behavior are regulated in social systems. (Ashley
Crossman, 2004)
Without maintaining
social control, no society or state can run smoothly and effectively. Degree of
deviance is present in every society, and every society has its own ways to
minimize the deviance. The ways adopted by any society to maintain social
order, are called Means of social control. Means of social control vary from
culture to culture and society to society. There are basically two types of
social control; i) Formal means of control ii) Informal means of control.
Formal
Means of Social Control
The ways adopted by
the Government to regulate the society, such as regulation rules, laws of
state, education and courts are formal means of control.
Informal Means of Social Control
The ways adopted by
the society itself to maintain social order are called informal means of social
control. The informal means of social control grow themselves in the society.
No special agency is required to create them. Informal means of control vary
from culture to culture and society to society. They are very effective in
maintaining social order. For example socialization has a great impact on the
behavior of people. Social control
and socialization are closely related to each other. Social control is a part
of socialization. During the process of socialization the process of social
control also is in operation. Through socialization social control becomes
effective. In order to maintain the social order there are definite procedures
in society. These customs and procedures become a part of man’s life and man
gets adjusted to the society. As a matter of fact, societies depend heavily
upon effective socialization to internalize social norms and values as the
individual’s guides and motives to action. Through socialization societies aim
to control the behavior of its members subconsciously. The various agencies of
socialization like family, state, school, club etc are also the agencies of
social control. They exercise regulatory influence over the behavior of the
individual. All
this is due to informal social control. It is exercised through customs,
traditions, folkways, mores, socialization, religion, ridicule etc. informal
control prevails over all the aspects of
man’s life. Public opinion also keeps the people away from deviant
behavior in order to maintain their reputation in the society. People avoid
such behavior that leads to negative perception and everyone wants to be
appreciated by the society. Other tools of informal social control like jirga, marka and Mediator are very effective in resolving the dispute
among the society. When the disputes are resolved, social order is maintained.
Fear of strict punishments keeps the people to live in peace.
However
it is said that people are not afraid of informal social control. Yet informal
means of social control are very powerful particularly in primary groups. No
man wants to suffer lost of prestige. He doesn’t want to be the target of
ridicule. He doesn’t want to be laughed at by the people. He doesn’t want to be
socially boycotted. On the other hand, he wants to be praised, appreciation,
honor and recognition by the society thus informal means controls man behavior.
Moreover the child through the process of socialization learns to conform the
norms of a group. A person with socialized attitude would not do any work which
is socially harmful. Thus, socialization also exercises an influence over him.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Informal
means of social control are practiced in every society in order to maintain
social order. But informal means of control vary from society to society and
culture to culture. Informal means of social control have great impact on the
attitude and behavior of people of that society. In the area of study, formal
means of control are not so much effective in regulating people’ behavior
that’s why different types of informal means of social control are introduced
and practiced in the study area. Area of study is a tribal area which consists
of baloch tribes, where formal means
of control are prevailing but not effective enough to control the society. In
the present study, relationship between formal and informal means of social
control is discussed and different types of formal means of control are
described.
1.3 Objectives
i)
To know
the different types of informal means of social control among Baloch tribes.
ii)
To find
out people’ perception about informal means of social control.
1.4 Research Methodology
Current research was conducted by following
the qualitative approach. It is descriptive in its nature. Subjectivity of
research topic claimed to use qualitative research methods i.e case study
method, collection of life histories and in depth interviews, participant
observation and kinship mapping. Arbitrary meanings of concepts of the research
bounded the researcher to rely upon the information and its interpretation
delivered by the key informants. Different information were collected by
participating in social events and gatherings of the society.
1.4.1 Rapport Building
The reference of same area and the same language, and the help of key
informant were very helpful in building rapport with the respondents.
Researcher visited the study area frequently and regularly to build a friendly
relationship with the respondents in order to collect the data before starting
the research work.
1.4.2 Key Informant
During the anthropological research, key
informant are very helpful in order to find the relevant respondents and the
valid data according the topic.
To make the research reliable and to collect the data, from the field,
an aged person (75 years old) was selected, who was the native of that society,
having good prestige in the society because of participating in conflict
resolution (jirga). Because of having
prestige in the society and having enough knowledge about the research topic,
that person (Essa khan) was selected as key informant who was very helpful
during all the research work.
Key Informant’s Profile
Name: Essa khan
Gender: Male
Status: Married/head of the household
Age: 75 years
Caste: Khetran
Occupation: None
Language: Native
Qualification: Illiterate
Social Status: well respected being elder. Contributor in Jirga process,
deep knowledge about blochi culture and family set up.
1.4.3 Participant Observation
Participant
observation, in social research proves very helpful in collection of the most
accurate data as possible. Researcher participated in public spheres (Autak/baithak), participated in
ceremonial events like marriage, death and Haal.
Researcher also participated in conflict resolution negotiations at local level
(beyond Jirga). Participating in all
these events proved very helpful to the researcher to know about different
social institutions of the society and to know the people behavior towards each
other.
1.4.4 Socio-Economic Census Survey Form
Socio-economic
census survey forms were used to collect the basic data about the households of
the society. Some other questions were also asked that were related to the
topic, that were not the part of
socio-economic census survey form but proved helpful to get the information
needed for the research. 70 socio-economic census survey forms were filled from
the heads of households.
1.4.5 Sampling
In order to select the sample size from the area of study, sampling
technique was used. Simple Random sampling and purposive sampling was used
during research work. Different members were approached through random sampling
in order to get some information about the social institutions of the society.
Purposive sampling was used to approach the selective people who were selected
for the interviews.
Study area consisted of 86 houses among which 60 houses were selected
for the interviews. These houses were selected by using purposive and simple
random sampling.
1.4.6 Interviews
Interviews consisted of question answer session between researcher and
the respondents. After reading different types of interviews, interview guide
(unstructured interviews) was used during the field work. Those questions were
asked who were directly related to the topic. Some questions were asked that
were indirectly related to the topic. Probing was also used to get more
information about the topic.
1.4.7 Case Studies
As the current study is descriptive in nature, that’s why in depth case
studies were taken to understand the effectiveness of informal social control
in the society. Case studies were helpful in knowing different tools used for
maintaining social order in the society.
1.4.8 Field Notes
Field notes were made in order to note down
the observations of the researcher, daily activities and some other important
information related to the research work.
All type of notes were made for the ease to
save all the data collected on the daily basis.
1.4.9 Recordings
Sometimes it was
not possible to note down some events and some information. Such kind of data
was collected in form of photos like some social gatherings and ceremonies like
marriage and Haal.
1.5 Significance of Study
Social control has core importance in any society and in anthropological
study too. It’s an important element for every society and it’s an inevitable
phenomenon. Without maintaining social order a society can never run smoothly
and effectively. Anthropology focuses on small scale societies. Present study
is also done in a small scale society. The study will be helpful to know that
how much effective are informal means of social control in small scale
societies with specific geographical settings, and to know that which
techniques are introduced by the society informally to regulate the behavior of
the people. It will help to know the socio-political structure of tribal
system.
Apart from this, the current study is focused on maintenance of a social
order in a society living in tribal areas. No society can run smoothly without
ensuring the better condition of social control. That’s why the study will
reveal important facts about the maintenance of social order. It will realize
the importance social control and informal means of control that are mostly
neglected by the people. It will also reveal some informal techniques used in
tribal areas to maintain peace, that are not commonly practiced everywhere. People
perception about informal and formal means of control will be known. After
knowing this, everyone will be able to know that which type of social is more
effective in tribal areas, in order to maintain social control.
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Social Control
Social control is a concept that refers to the ways in
which people’s thoughts, feelings, appearance, and behavior are regulated in
social systems. One way this is done is through coercion, from imprisoning
those who commit a crime to physicians administering drugs that make difficult
patients more manageable. Social control, however, is mainly done through
socialization in which people come to identify with a social system and its
values and norms, thereby acquiring a stake in maintaining those values and norms.
(Ashley
crossman, 2004)
Social
Control Theory
Introduction
Control theory offers the
justification for why people obey rules. Control theory provides an explanation
for how behavior conforms to that which is generally expected in society. Some
control theories emphasize the developmental processes during childhood by
which internal constraints develop. Social control theories, however, focus
primarily on external factors and the processes by which they become effective.
Deviance and crime occur because of inadequate constraints. For social control
theory, the underlying view of human nature includes the conception of free
will, thereby giving offenders the capacity of choice, and responsibility for
their behavior. As such, social control theory is aligned more with the
classical school of criminology than with positivist or determinist
perspectives. For the most part, social control theory postulates a shared
value or belief in social norms. Even those who break laws or violate social
norms are likely to share the general belief that those rules should be
followed. Crime and deviance are considered predictable behaviors that society
has not curtailed. Explaining conformity, particularly the process by which
people are socialized to obey the rules, is the essence of social control
theory. Thus, social control theory focuses on how the absence of close
relationships with conventional others can free individuals from social
constraints, thereby allowing them to engage in delinquency. Alternatively,
other prominent criminological theories focus on how close relationships with
delinquent peers or negative relationships with others can lead or compel
individuals to commit delinquency.
The first notions of social
control theory may be found in the work of some of the Enlightenment thinkers
and the classical school of criminology. One author, Thomas Hobbes, an English
philosopher writing in the seventeenth century about the inherent tendency
toward self-indulgence and evil that requires external restraint and the
corresponding role of government, is frequently mentioned more often, the
origin is connected to Emile Durkheim, the prolific French writer who many
consider the founder of sociology and structural functionalism. In addition to
explaining the condition of anomie that results from a breakdown in social
norms, Durkheim also offered crime and deviance as social facts, present in all
societies Durkheim said, “We are moral beings to the extent that we are social
beings” In his view, crime serves the function of identifying boundaries for
behavior, which are recognized collectively in communities and reinforced by
negative societal reactions. Social order is thereby maintained by the process
of being socialized to avoid disapproval associated with deviant acts. This
process also is the means by which boundaries are altered and social change
occurs. Durkheim’s view of social control is conveyed as follows: “The more
weakened the groups to which the individual belongs, the less he depends on
them, the more he consequently depends only on himself and recognizes no other
rules of conduct than what are founded on his private interests”. (Durkheim, 1951)
Durkheim (Social Control)
To Durkheim, men were creatures whose
desires were unlimited. Unlike other animals, they are not satiated when their
biological needs are fulfilled. "The more one has, the more one wants,
since satisfactions received only stimulate instead of filling needs." It
follows from this natural insatiability of the human animal that his desires
can only be held in check by external controls, that is, by societal control.
Society imposes limits on human desires and constitutes "a regulative
force must play the same role for moral needs which the organism plays for
physical needs." In well-regulated societies, social controls set limits
on individual propensities so that "each in his sphere vaguely realizes
the extreme limits on individual propensities so that "each in his sphere
vaguely realizes the extreme limits set to his ambitions and aspires to nothing
beyond. Thus, an end or a goal is set to the passions."
When social regulations break down,
the controlling influence of society on individual propensities is no longer
effective and individuals are left to their own devices. Such a state of
affairs Durkheim calls anomie, a term that refers to a condition of relative
normlessness in a whole society or in some of its component groups. Anomie does
not refer to a state of mind, but to a property of the social structure. It
characterizes a condition in which individual desires are no longer regulated
by common norms and where, as a consequence, individuals are left without moral
guidance in the pursuit of their goals.
Although complete anomie, or total
normlessness, is empirically impossible, societies may be characterized by
greater or lesser degrees of normative regulations. Moreover, within any
particular society, groups may differ in the degree of anomie that besets them.
Social change may create anomie either in the whole society or in some parts of
it. Business crises, for example, may have a far greater impact on those on the
higher reaches of the social pyramid than on the underlying population. When
depression leads to a sudden downward mobility, the men affected experience a
de-regulation in their lives--a loss of moral certainty and customary
expectations that are no longer sustained by the group to which these men once
belonged. Similarly, the rapid onset of prosperity may lead some people to a
quick upward mobility and hence deprive them of the social support needed in
their new styles of life. Any rapid movement in the social structure that
upsets previous networks in which life styles are embedded carries with it a
chance of anomie.
Durkheim argued that economic
affluence, by stimulating human desires, carries with it dangers of anomic
conditions because it "deceives us into believing that we depend on
ourselves only," while "poverty protects against suicide because it
is a restraint in itself." Since the realization of human desires depends
upon the resources at hand, the poor are restrained, and hence less prone to
suffer from anomie by virtue of the fact that they possess but limited
resources. "The less one has the less he is tempted to extend the range of
his needs indefinitely."
By accounting for the different
susceptibility to anomie in terms of the social process--that is, the relations
between individuals rather than the biological propensities of individuals--
Durkheim in effect proposed a specifically sociological theory of deviant
behavior even though he failed to point to the general implications of this
crucial insight. In the words of Robert K. Merton, who was the first to ferret
out in this respect the overall implications of Durkheim's thought and to
develop them methodically, "Social structures exert a definite pressure
upon certain persons in the society to engage in nonconforming rather than
conforming conduct."
Durkheim's program of study, the
overriding problems in all his work, concerns the sources of social order and
disorder, the forces that make for regulation or de-regulation in the body
social. His work on suicide, of which the discussion and analysis of anomie
forms a part, must be read in this light. Once he discovered that certain types
of suicide could be accounted for by anomie, he could then use anomic suicide
as an index for the otherwise unmeasurable degree of social integration. This
was not circular reasoning, as could be argued, but a further application of
his method of analysis. He reasoned as follows: There are no societies in which
suicide does not occur, and many societies show roughly the same rates of
suicide over long periods of time. This indicates that suicides may be
considered a "normal," that is, a regular, occurrence. However,
sudden spurts in the suicide rates of certain groups or total societies are
"abnormal" and point to some perturbations not previously present.
Hence. "abnormally" high rates in specific groups or social
categories, or in total societies, can be taken as an index of disintegrating
forces at work in a social structure.
Durkheim distinguished between types
of suicide according to the relation of the actor to his society. When men
become "detached from society," when they are thrown upon their own
devices and loosen the bonds that previously had tied them to their fellow,
they are prone to egoistic, or individualistic, suicide. When the normative
regulations surrounding individual conduct are relaxed and hence fail to curb
and guide human propensities, men are susceptible to succumbing to anomic
suicide. To put the matter differently, when the restraints of structural
integration, as exemplified in the operation of organic solidarity, fail to operate,
men become prone to egoistic suicide; when the collective conscience weakens,
men fall victim to anomic suicide.
In addition to egoistic and anomic
types of suicide, Durkheim refers to altruistic and fatalistic suicide. The
latter is touched upon only briefly in his work, but the former is of great
importance for an understanding of Durkheim's general approach. Altruistic
suicide refers to cases in which suicide can be accounted for by overly strong
regulation of individuals, as opposed to lack of regulation. Durkheim argues in
effect that the relation of suicide rates to social regulation is
curvilinear--high rates being associated with both excessive individuation and
excessive regulation. In the case of excessive regulation, the demands of
society are so great that suicide varies directly rather than inversely with
the degree of integration. For example, in the instance of the Hindu normative
requirement that widows commit ritual suicide upon the funeral pyre of their
husbands, or in the case of harikiri, the individual is so strongly attuned to
the demands of his society that he is willing to take his own life when the
norms so demand. Arguing from statistical data, Durkheim shows that in modern
societies the high rates of suicide among the military cannot be explained by
the deprivations of military life suffered by the lower ranks, since the
suicide rate happens to be higher for officers than for enlisted men. Rather,
the high rate for officers can be accounted for by a military code of honor that
enjoins a passive habit of obedience leading officers to undervalue their own
lives. In such cases, Durkheim is led to refer to too feeble degrees of
individuation and to counterpose these to the excesses of individuation or
de-regulation, which account, in his view, for the other major forms of
suicide.
Durkheim's discussion of altruistic
suicide allows privileged access to some of the intricacies of his approach. He
has often been accused of having an overly anti-individualistic philosophy, one
that is mainly concerned with the taming of individual impulse and the
harnessing of the energies of individuals for the purposes of society. Although
it cannot be denied that there are such tendencies in his work, Durkheim's
treatment of altruistic suicide indicates that he was trying to establish a
balance between the claims of individuals and those of society, rather than to
suppress individual strivings. Acutely aware of the dangers of the breakdown of
social order, he also realized that total control of component social actors by
society would be as detrimental as anomie and de-regulation. Throughout his
life he attempted to establish a balance between societal and individual
claims.
Durkheim was indeed a thinker in the
conservative tradition to the extent that he reacted against the atomistic
drift of most Enlightenment philosophy and grounded his sociology in a concern
for the maintenance of social order. As Robert Nisbet has shown convincingly,
such key terms as cohesion, solidarity, integration, authority, ritual, and
regulation indicate that his sociology is anchored upon an anti-atomistic set
of premises. In this respect he was like his traditionalist forebears, yet it
would be a mistake to classify Durkheim as a traditionalist social thinker.
Politically he was a liberal--indeed, a defender of the rights of individuals
against the state. He also was moved to warn against excesses of regulation
over persons even though the major thrusts of his argument were against those
who, by failing to recognize the requirements of the social order, were likely
to foster anomic states of affairs. Anomie, he argued, was as detrimental to
individuals as it was to the social order at large.
Durkheim meant to show that a
Spencerian approach to the social realm, an approach in which the social
dimension is ultimately derived from the desire of individuals to increase the
sum of their happiness, did not stand up before the court of evidence or the
court of reason. Arguing against Spencer and the utilitarians, he maintained
that society cannot be derived from the propensity of individuals to trade and
barter in order to maximize their own happiness. This view fails to account for
the fact that people do not trade and barter at random but follow a pattern
that is normative. For men to make a contract and live up to it, they must have
a prior commitment to the meaning of a contract in its own right. Such prior
collective commitment, that is, such a non-contractual element of contracts,
constitutes the framework of normative control. No trade or barter can take
place without social regulation and some system of positive and negative
sanctions.
Durkheim's main shafts against
individualistic social theories notwithstanding, he was by no means oblivious
of the dangers of overregulation to which Spencer's social philosophy had been
especially sensitive. Durkheim saw man as Homo duplex--as body, desire, and
appetite and also as socialized personality. But man was specifically human
only in the latter capacity, and he became fully human only in and through
society. Hence, true moral action lies in the sacrifice of certain individual
desires for the service of groups and society. But such sacrifices redound in
the last analysis to the benefit of individuals, as well as society, since
unbridled desires lead to frustration and unhappiness rather than to bliss and
fulfillment. Modern society seems to contain, for Durkheim, the potentialities
for individualism within social regulation. In contrast to earlier types of
social organization based on mechanical solidarity that demanded a high degree
of regimentation, modern types of organization rest on organic solidarity
obtained through the functional interdependence of autonomous individuals. In
modern societies, social solidarity is dependent upon, rather than repressive
of, individual autonomy of conduct.
Though Durkheim stressed that in
modern societies a measure of integration was achieved through the intermeshing
and mutual dependence of differentiated roles, he came to see that these
societies nevertheless could not do without some common integration by a system
of common beliefs. In earlier social formations built on mechanical solidarity,
such common beliefs are not clearly distinct from the norms through which they
are implemented in communal action; in the case of organic solidarity, the
detailed norms have become relatively independent from overall beliefs,
responding as they do to the exigencies of differentiated role requirements,
but a general system of overall beliefs must still exist. Hence Durkheim
turned, in the last period of his scholarly life, to the study of religious
phenomena as core elements of systems of common beliefs. ( Coser, N. 1977)
Weber’s
Theory of Social Class
Class,
Status & Party
Marx saw class divisions as the most important source of social
conflict. Weber's analysis of class is similar to Marx's, but he discusses
class in the context of social stratification more generally. Class is one
dimension of the social structure. Social status, or "social honor,"
is another. Both are significant contributors of social difference.
Weber's treatment of class and status indicates the manner in which the
material basis of society is related to the ideological. Social conflict can
result from one or the other, or both. Social action is motivated by both,
though in some cases more one than the other. By bringing in status, Weber
provides a more flexible view of the details of social differences, and their
implications for the lived experience of social actors.
In order to fully understand Weber's perspective on stratification, we
need to be familiar with a few general concepts: (i) power; (ii) domination;
and, (iii) communal and societal action.
Power, Domination, Communal & Societal
Action
Power
Weber defines power as the ability of a actor (or actors) to realize his
or her will in a social action, even against the will of other actors. Power
relates to the ability to command resources in a particular domain. Economic
power, then, is the ability to control material resources: to direct
production, to monopolize accumulation, to dictate consumption.
Societal power includes economic power, social power, legal or political
power, and so forth. Although the control of these domains of resources usually
go together, they represent different mechanisms of power, and are conceptually
distinct.
Domination
Domination is the exercise of authority. Possession of power in a sphere
results in dominance. Weber articulated three ideal types of domination:
charisma, tradition and rational-legal.
Charismatic domination rests on the character of the leader. Through
inspiration, coercion, communication and leadership, a particular individual
may succeed in occupying a central role in the planning and co-ordination of
social action. Charisma, Weber believed, emerges in times of social crisis.
People lose confidence in existing forms of authority, and the charismatic
leader takes advantage of the crisis. Because it is a personalized form of
authority, it tends to be unstable. It does not normally survive the death of
the original leader, and it often abandons the leader while he or she is alive.
For charismatic authority to be sustained, it must be routinized.
Traditional authority is based on the belief in the legitimacy of
well-established forms of power. Tradition implies an inherent, natural, or
metaphysical quality in the state of affairs that makes it resistant to
challenges by reason. Tradition often functions in a society with rigid forms
of social hierarchy, because of the role of social inheritance and custom.
Traditional authority is based on loyalty to the leadership. Power is
exercised by commands issued from the leader or leadership group. Officials are
obedient to that person or group, and the lines of authority are often unstated
and vague. Traditional authority tends not to distinguish between public and
private affairs. The task specialization, in terms of the exercise of power, is
minimal.
Rational-legal authority is based on a set of rules, and the belief in
the legitimacy of the process of rule creation and enforcement. This form of
domination is routinized through bureaucracy. It tends to remain independent of
particular individuals, because authority resides in the office, or the
organizational position of the role.
In the bureaucracy, rational-legal power is exercised on the basis of
knowledge and experience, not on personality or custom. Authority functions by
means of obedience to the rules rather than persons. Bureaucracy tends to
separate the personal and public spheres. Task specialization is extensive
within the bureaucracy.
Communal & Societal Action
A communal action is oriented on the basis of a shared belief of affiliation.
In other words, actors believe that they somehow belong together in some way.
Their action stems from, and is co-ordinated by this sentiment. In contrast,
societal action is oriented to a rational adjustment of interests. The
motivation is not a sense of shared purpose, but rather, a recognition of
shared interests.
II.
Class
Weber identified three aspects of class: (i) a specific causal component
of actors life chances (ii) which rests exclusively on economic interests and
wealth, and (iii) is represented under conditions of labor and commodity
markets. The possession of material resources, accumulated by advantage in the
marketplace, results in distinctive qualities in terms of the standard of
living.1
The possession of property defines the main class difference, according
to Weber. The owners of property have a definite advantage, and in some cases a
monopoly on, action in the market of commodities and, especially, labor. They
have privileged access to the sources of wealth creation, by virtue of
ownership and control of the markets. Weber identified a subdivision among
property owners based on the means of their wealth creation. Entrepreneurs use
wealth in commercial ventures. Rentiers profit by interest on their property,
through investments or rent of land.2 Both forms of ownership yield advantages resulting from the
ability to convert property to money.
The property-less class is defined by the kinds of services individual
workers provide in the labor market. Workers are classified as skilled,
semi-skilled and unskilled. These distinctions are based on the value of
different kinds of labor. Different wages result in different qualities in
terms of the standard of living.3
Weber did not believe that class interests necessarily led to uniformity
in social action. Neither communal nor societal action is the inexorable result
of class interest. Weber challenges, here, the Marxian notion of the primarily
material basis of social action. He is not denying it outright, but rather,
introducing an element of unpredictability. Weber did not believe that
proletarian revolutionary action would arise as a certain result of structural
contradiction.
Communal or societal action may develop from a common class situation in
certain conditions. Weber believed that the general cultural conditions played
a large role in this determination. Intellectuals occupy a key position in this
regard. Weber argued that the extent of the contrasts between the property
owners and the property-less workers must become transparent to the workers in
order for collective action around the issue of class to occur. Intellectuals
function either to call attention to and explain these contrasts, or, to
obscure them.
For communal or societal action to take place, the workers must not only
recognize the differences in wealth and opportunity, but these differences must
be seen as the result of the distribution of property and economic power. If
the differences are believed to be a natural characteristic of society, as a
given fact, then only occasional and irrational action is possible.
Very often, collective action centers on the labor market. Workers seek higher
wages, and see this as the goal of their struggle. Most class antagonism, Weber
noted, is directed at managers, rather than at owners—stockholders and
bankers—because they appear to be have the power to set the price of labor
power.
III.
Status
While class groups do not constitute communities, according to Weber,
status groups normally are communities. Status is defined as the likelihood
that life chances are determined by social honor, or, prestige. Status groups
are linked by a common style of life, and the attendant social restrictions.
Wealth is not necessarily the primary cause of status, though it is
generally associated with it. Some forms of property ownership are connected
with prestige, others are not. "Old money" typically confers greater
status than "new money." Rentiers usually hold greater status than
entrepreneurs, because their wealth is less visibly connected to labor.
Wealth is a key determinant of the lifestyle differences upon which
status depends. Weber notes that "material monopolies are the most
effective motives for the exclusiveness of a status group." Social
restrictions, such as marriage patterns, residence, and so forth, follow from
differences in wealth reflected in prestige.
Status distinctions are usually not ethnic. When carried to their
fullest extent, as a caste system, perceived ethnicity is sometimes involved.
In the case of caste, social distinctions are reinforced by legal and ritual
restrictions. Caste usually develops into a functional system, by virtue of
occupational differences.
The dignity of high status groups is always worldly. It involves their
distinctive life style, as manifest in patterns of association and consumption.
Low status groups, on the other hand, project their sense of worth on salvation
hopes. Their due, they believe, is guaranteed in the life to come. It is common
for low status groups to believe that they enjoy a special relationship with
their god or gods.
Status divisions tend to codified on the basis of the stable
distribution of economic power. When economic stratification is relatively
invariant, status differences tend to increase.
IV.
Party
Class and status interests interact in the realm of the legal order, the
arena of politics. Political power is, obviously, often based on class and status
interests. Parties are the organizations of power. Their purpose is the
struggle for domination. Parties commonly operate in the political/legal
domain, but as an ideal type, parties are not
restricted to this field.
Although parties are based on class and status, they are usually
organized across these distinctions. That is, it is rare for parties to be
based solely on class or status interests, such that a party of entrepreneurial
class interest would be in competition with one based on high status. Since
economic power binds class status together in some way, it is no surprise that
parties reflect these complex patterns of interest.
Parties represent a high degree of rationality in social action. Parties
require planning; their motives are strategic. Irrational types of social
action are not completely excluded, however. Tradition and affect are a part of
the operation of parties. (Weber, M. 1904)
Sociology of Deviance and Crime
Sociologists
who study deviance and crime examine cultural norms, how they change over time,
how they are enforced, and what happens to individuals and societies when norms
are broken. Deviance and social norms vary among societies, communities, and
times, and often sociologists are interested in why these differences exist and
how these differences impact the individuals and groups in those areas.
Sociologists
define deviance as behavior that is recognized as violating expected rules and
norms. It is simply more than nonconformity, however; it is behavior that departs
significantly from social expectations. In the sociological perspective on
deviance, there is subtlety that distinguishes it from our commonsense
understanding of the same behavior. Sociologists stress social context, not
just individual behavior. That is, deviance is looked at in terms of group
processes, definitions, and judgments and not just as unusual individual acts.
Sociologists also recognize that not all behaviors are judged similarly by all
groups. What is deviant to one group may not be considered deviant to another.
Further, sociologists recognize that established rules and norms are socially
created, not just morally decided or individually imposed. That is, deviance
lies not just in the behavior itself, but in the social responses of groups to
behavior by others. recognized as such. The societal reaction to deviant
behavior suggests that social groups actually create deviance by making the
rules whose infraction constitutes deviance and by applying those rules to
particular people and labeling them as outsiders.
Sociologists
often use their understanding of deviance to help explain otherwise ordinary
events, such as tattooing or body piercing, eating disorders, or drug and
alcohol use. Many of the kinds of questions asked by sociologists who study
deviance deal with the social context in which behaviors are committed. For
example, are there conditions under which suicide is an acceptable behavior?
Would one who commits suicide in the face of a terminal illness be judged
differently from a despondent person who jumps from a window? (Anderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. 2009)
Deviant
behavior
Deviant behavior is any behavior that is contrary to the dominant norms
of society. There are many different theories on what causes a person to
perform deviant behavior, including biological explanations, psychological
explanations, and sociological explanations. Following are some of the major
sociological explanations for deviant behavior.
Structural Strain Theory
Robert
K. Merton developed the Structural
Strain Theory as an extension of the functionalist perspective on
deviance. This theory traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are
caused by the gap between cultural goals and the means people have available to
achieve those goals.
According to the structural strain theory,
Societies are characterized by both culture and social structure. Culture
establishes goals for people in society while social structure provides (or
fails to provide) the means for people to achieve those goals. In a well-integrated
society, people use accepted and appropriate means to achieve the goals that
society establishes. In this case, the goals and the means of the society are
in balance. It is when the goals and means are not in balance with each other
that deviance is likely to occur. This imbalance between cultural goals and
structurally available means can actually lead an individual into deviant
behavior.
Merton also classified people into five
general categories with regards to their relationship to culturally accepted
goals and the means to achieving those goals:
·
Conformists are people who believe in both
the established cultural goals of society as well as the normative means for
attaining those goals. They follow the rules of society.
·
Ritualists are individuals who do not believe
in the established cultural goals of society, but they do believe in and abide
by the means for attaining those goals.
·
Innovators are those individuals that accept
the cultural goals of society but reject the conventional methods of attaining
those goals. These people usually have a blatant disregard for the conventional
methods that have been established in attaining wealth and are generally those
we regard as criminals.
·
Retreatists are individuals who reject both
the cultural goals and the accepted means of attaining those goals. They simply
avoid both the goals and means established by society without replacing those
norms with their own counter-cultural forces.
·
Rebels not only reject both the established
cultural goals and the accepted means of attaining those goals, but they
substitute new goals and new means of attaining those goals.
Labeling Theory
Labeling
theory is one of the most important approaches to understanding deviant and
criminal behavior within sociology. Labeling theory begins with the assumption
that no act is intrinsically criminal. Definitions of criminality are
established by those in power through the formulation of laws and the
interpretation of those laws by police, courts, and correctional institutions.
Deviance is therefore not a set of characteristics of individuals or groups,
but rather it is a process of interaction between deviants and non-deviants and
the context in which criminality is being interpreted.
Those who represent forces of law and order
and those who enforce the boundaries of proper behavior, such as the police,
court officials, experts, and school authorities, provide the main source of
labeling. By applying labels to people, and in the process creating categories
of deviance, these people are reinforcing the power structure of society. Many
of the rules that define deviance and the contexts in which deviant behavior is
labeled as deviant are framed by the wealthy for the poor, by men for women, by
older people for younger people, and by ethnic minorities for minority groups.
In other words, the more powerful and dominant groups in society create and
apply deviant labels to the subordinate groups.
Social Control Theory
Social
control theory, developed by Travis Hirschi, is a type of functionalist
theory that suggests that deviance occurs when a person’s or group’s
attachment to social bonds is weakened. According to this view, people care
about what others think of them and conform to social expectations because of
their attachments to others and what others expect of them. Socialization is
important in producing conformity to social rules and it is when this
conformity is broken that deviance occurs.
Social control theory focuses on how deviants
are attached, or not, to common value systems and what situations break
people’s commitment to these values. This theory also suggests that most people
probably feel some impulse towards deviant behavior at some time, but their
attachment to social norms prevents them from actually participating in deviant
behavior.
Theory of Differential Association
The theory of differential association is a
learning theory that focuses on the processes by which individuals come to
commit deviant or criminal acts. According to the theory, created by Edwin H. Sutherland,
criminal behavior is learned through interactions with other people. Through
this interaction and communication, people learn the values, attitudes,
techniques, and motives for criminal behavior.
Differential association theory emphasizes
the interaction people have with their peers and others in their environment.
Those who associate with delinquents, deviants, or criminals learn to value
deviance. The greater the frequency, duration, and intensity of their immersion
in deviant environments, the more likely it is that they will become deviant.
This theory really focuses on how people become criminals, not why they become
criminals.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power
in producing social order. This perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as
fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social
order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the
greatest political, economic, and social resources. When consensus exists, it
is attributable to people being united around common interests, often in
opposition to other groups.
According to
conflict theory, inequality exists because those in control of a
disproportionate share of society’s resources actively defend their advantages.
The masses are not bound to society by their shared values, but by coercion at
the hands of those in power. This perspective emphasizes social control, not
consensus and conformity. Groups and individuals advance their own interests,
struggling over control of societal resources. Those with the most resources
exercise power over others with inequality and power struggles resulting. There
is great attention paid to class, race, and gender in this perspective because
they are seen as the grounds of the most pertinent and enduring struggles in
society.
Whereas most
other sociological theories focus on the positive aspects of society, conflict
perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of
society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change,
and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists
challenge the status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social
revolution), and believe rich and powerful people force social order on the
poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret an “elite”
board of regents raising tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that raise
the prestige of a local college as self-serving rather than as beneficial for
students.
Whereas
American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict
perspective in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American
sociologists gain considerable interest in conflict theory. They also expanded
Marx's idea that the key conflict in society was strictly economic. Today,
conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the
potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political,
economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have
conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another.
This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing
nature of society. Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly
negative view of society. The theory ultimately attributes humanitarian
efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects of
society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests
in preserving society and social order. (Anderson, M.L.
and Taylor, H.F. 2009)
Formal and Informal Means of Social Control
Different
sociologists have given different opinions regarding the means of social
control. F.E. Lumley classified the means of social control into major
categories; based upon force and based upon symbols. According to him, though
physical force in indispensable in social control, yet, it is not merely the
force that can manage the individuals. Human societies have to rely upon
symbolic devices, which are more effective than force. According to him, the
means of social control are rewards, praise, flattery, education, persuasion,
gossip, satire, criticism, propaganda and so on.
E.A. Ross has
described a number of means of social control that have been employed by social
groups throughout the human history to keep individuals under control. The
important among them are public opinion, law, custom, religion, morality,
folkways and modes.
E.C.Hayes
distinguished between control by sanctions and control by suggestion in
imitation. By control, by sanctions he meant a system of rewards and
punishments. According to him, education is the most effective means of social
control.
Karl Mannheim
distinguished between direct and indirect means of social control. Kimhall
Young classified the means of social control into positive and negative means.
According to him, reward is a positive means while punishment is a negative
means. L.L. Bernard distinguished between conscious and unconscious means of
social control. The most important unconscious means are custom, tradition and
convention. The conscious means of social control are those, which have been
consciously developed and employed by leaders of all types. These are law,
education, public opinion and coercion.
Bernard also
distinguished between destructive and constructive means of social control.
Exploitive means are such as punishment, reprisals, intimidation and
repression. Among the constructive means are included revolution, custom, law, education,
social reform and non-violent coercion.
But most of
the sociologists have classified the means of social control into types such as
informal means and formal means. These are traced out below:
Informal Means
of Social Control
The informal
means of social control grow themselves in society. No special agency is
required to create them. The Brahmins do not take meat. They take meals only
after bath. The Jains do not take curd. They take their dinner before sunset.
The Hindu women do not smoke. One can marry only in one's caste. The children
should respect their parents. All this is due to informal social control. It is
exercised through customs, traditions, folkways, modes, religion, ridicule etc.
Informal control prevails over all the aspects of man's life.
However, it is
said that people are not afraid of informal social control. Yet informal means
of social control are very powerful particularly in primary groups. No man
wants to suffer loss of prestige. He does not want to become the target of ridicule.
He does not want to be laughed at by the people. He does not want to be
socially boycotted. On the other hand, he wants praise, appreciation, honor and
recognition by the society. Thus, informal means, like praise, ridicule,
boycott etc. effectively control his behavior. Moreover, the child through the
process of socialization learns to conform to the norms of group. A person with
socialized attitudes would not do any work, which is socially harmful. Thus,
socialization also exercises an influence over him.
Now we may
describe briefly the important means of informal control.
(I) Belief-
Belief is a conviction that a particular thing is true. It is primarily of five
kinds.
(a) The belief
in the existence of an unseen power;
(b) The belief
in the theory of Ye-incarnation,
(c) The belief
in Nemesis, the Goddess of Vengeance,
(d) The belief
in the existence of hell and heaven and,
(e) The belief
in the immortality and soul.
All these
different beliefs influence man's behavior in society. The first belief in the
existence of an unseen power leads a man to right actions because he believes
that his actions are being watched by an unseen power. The second belief in the
theory of reincarnation keeps the man away from wrongful acts because he
believes that in order to have a good birth in next he must do good, acts in
this life. The third belief in the Goddess of Vengeance also regulates man's
behavior because he believes that he will be punished by the goddess of
Vengeance for his sins. A sinner is punished here and now. The Fourth belief in
the existence of hell and heaven influences a man to virtuous acts and avoid
sins in order to go to heaven or avoid going to hell after death. Heaven is
place full of luxuries, fairies and romance. Hell is a place of terror,
miseries and tortures. The fifth belief in the immortality of soullend man to
avoid such actions as will cause pain to the soul of the deceased ancestors.
In this way,
beliefs are powerful influences on human actions. They are vital for human
relations. They define the purposes and interests for the individual and
control his choice of means so that the purposes of the groups may be advanced
of at least not hundred. No aspect of social relationship escapes them. Beliefs
may be false. They may be founded on factual or faculty evidence. But the
question of their validity does not necessarily determine their effectiveness
of social controls, we act with as much determination from false beliefs as
from factually second ones.
Social Suggestions
Social
suggestions are also powerful means of social control. Suggestion is the
indirect communication may be made through various methods. The first method is
putting the life examples of great men. We celebrate the anniversaries of
Mahatma Gandhi and Lal Bahadur Sastri, We build monument in the memory of great
men. We place their ideals before the people and exhort them to follow these
ideas. The second method of making suggestion is through literature Books,
Journals, newspapers etc. may inspire people to heroic deeds and develop in
them national feeling. The literature may also make people narrow minded
conservative and superstitious. These types of literature will indirectly
influence his mind and consequently his behavior. The third method is through
education. The educational curriculum may communicate certain ideas to the
students and make them discipline citizens. The fourth method is through
advertisement. Many magazines carry beautiful advertisements depicting the
advantages of visiting certain places and suggesting the prestige attached to
traveling to these places. The advertisements from Radio. Ceylon may attract
the people to Binaca toothpaste. Many of our business enterprises employ
advertising to influence-attitudes and therefore, action. Suggestions may be
conscious or unconscious. It may also be intentional or unintentional.
Ideologies
Ideology is a
theory of social life, which interprets social realities from the point of view
of deals to prove the correctness of the analysis and to justify these ideals.
It is the projection of a certain ideal. Leninism, Gandhism and Fascism are
ideologies, which have analyzed social realities and laid down an ideal before
the people. Ideologies influence social life to a very deep extent.
Leninism-had influenced the social life of Russians. Hitler's theory of
socialism influenced the German to the extent that they began to regard
themselves as the supreme race of the world. Gandhism has influenced social
life in India. In the world we today, find a conflict of ideologies. The
conflict between U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. is a conflict of capitalism and communism.
The history of man has been one of struggle among conflicting ideologies. Ideologies
are powerful dynamic forces of contemporary social life. They satisfy the need
of all men to believe in a system of though that is rigorous. They express the
vital interests of social groups and satisfy their desire for a scheme of
social betterment. They stimulate action. They provide a set of values. They
are motivators of social action. They make life meaningful. The success of any
ideology, as an effective means of social control depends on many factors. Some
of these factors are its completeness and coherence, its vision of the future
is its ability to hold men's imaginations, its consistency and its ability to
meet criticism.
Folkways
Folkways are
the recognized modes of behavior, which arise automatically with a group. They
are the behavior patterns of everyday life, which arise spontaneously and
unconsciously in a group. They are in general the habits of the individual and
are common to a group. They are socially approved. They have some degree of
traditional sanction. It is not easy for the members of a group to violate the
folkways. They are the foundation of group culture. If an individual does not
follow them he may be socially boycotted by his group. A particular dress must
be worn at a particular function. The Brahmins shall not take meat. The Jains
should not take curd. The Hindu women should not smoke. Since folkways become a
matter of habit, therefore, these are followed unconsciously and exercise
powerful influence over man's behaviour in society.
Mores
Mores are
those folkways, which are considered by the group to be of great significance,
rattier indispensable to its welfare. The mores related to the fundamental
needs of society more directly than do the folkways. They express the group
sense of what is right and conducive to social welfare. They imply a value judgment
about the folkways. Mores arc always molding human behavior. They restrain an
individual from doing acts considered as wrong by his group. They are the
instruments of control. In society, there are innumerable modes like to
monogamy, prohibition, endogamy, antislavery etc. Conformity to modes is
regarded necessary. It is essential for the members of the group to conform to
them. Behavior contrary to them is not permitted by society. Certain modes may
even be harmful for the physical well-being of an individual, yet these must be
obeyed. Thus, mores control man's behavior in society to a very great extent.
Customs
Customs are
the long established habits and usages of the people. They are those folkways
and modes, which have persisted for a very long time and have passed down from
one generation to another. They arise spontaneously and gradually. There is no
constituted authority to declare them to apply them or to safeguard them. They
are accepted by society. They are followed because they have been followed in
the past. The importance of custom as a means of social control cannot be
minimized. They are so powerful that no one can escape their range. They
regulate social life to a great extent. They bind men together. They control
the purely selfish impulses. They compel the individual to conform to the
accepted standards. They are held so sacred that any violation of them is
regarded not only a crime but also a sacrilege. In primitive customs are main
agencies of social control but in modern times their force has loosened.
Religion
Religion also
exercises a powerful influence upon man's behavior in society. The term
religion has numerous definitions. Religion is an attitude towards super human
powers. It is a belief in powers superior to man. It expresses itself in
several forms like superstition, animism, totemism, magic ritualism and
fetishism. Religion pervades practically in all the societies, though there may
be different forms of religious beliefs and practices. The Hindu religion gives
great importance to ceremonies. At the time of birth, marriage arid death a
number of ceremonies is performed. Mantras are recited even if one does not
understand their meaning. Religion is a powerful agency in society. It influences
man's behavior. Children should obey their parents, should not tell a lie or
cheat, women should be faithful to man, people should be honest and virtuous
and should limit one's desires, man should renounce unsocial activities are
some of the teaching of religion which influence man's behavior. Men should do
good acts is a common teaching of all the religion. Religion makes people
benevolent, charitable, forbearing and truthful. It may also be noted that
religion may easily be destroyed into superstition and dogmatism instead of
being an incentive to ethical idealism. Religion may be, used to make people be
used their lot obedience to their rules and defenders of status quo. It may
deny freedom of thought. It may favor poverty exploitation and idleness and encourage
practices like cannibalism, slavery, untouchability, communalism and even
incest.
Art and Literature
Art in its
narrow sense includes painting, sculpture, architecture, music and dance.
Literature -includes poetry, dream and fiction. Both art and literature
influence the imagination and exert control on human behavior. The marital
music of the military band arouses feeling of determination and strength. A
classical dance creates in us an appreciation of our culture. The statute of
Mahatma Gandhi teaches us the virtue of simple living and high thinking. A
painting may arouse in us a feeling of sympathy, affection and hatred. There is
always a close relationship between the national lives. The civilization of any
specified time can be judged by an examination of its arts. Artists have been
called an agent of civilization.
Literature
also influences human behavior in society. We have 'good' literature and 'bad'
literature. A good literature possesses an indefinable quality which makes it
live through the ages, Ramayana, Bhagvadgita and Mahabharat are classical work
of great social value. On the other hand, detective literature may have its
effect on crime. Romantic literature may make the reader passionate while
religious literature may make them virtuous or superistituous. Rousseau1 in
France has tended the French Revolution. Dickens changed the entire school
system in Britain by writing David Copperfield and other of his books. In this
way, both art and literature exert control through their influence on the
imagination.
Humor and Satire
Humor is also
a means of social control. It assumes various forms depending upon the
situation and purpose. It often serves to relieve a tense situation. Sometimes
it is used with a bad intention to deflate others without a reason. It also
used to gain a favorable response. Humor controls by supporting the sanctioned
values of the society. Through cartoons, comics and reports it can support the
values of the society in a form that is light in spirit but effective in control.
Satire employs
wit and scorn as indirect criticism of actions felt to be vicious and socially
harmful. It exposes by ridicule the falsity and danger of behavior. There by it
causes the people to give up their vicious and harmful actions.
Public Opinion
The influence
of public opinion as a means of social control is greater in simple societies.
In a village, the people are known to one another personally. It is difficult
for a villager to act contrary to the public opinion of the village. Public
opinion greatly influences our actions. For fear of public ridicule and
criticism, we do not indulge in immoral antisocial activities. Every individual
wants to win public praise and avoid public ridicule or criticism. The desire
for recognition is a natural desire. We want count for something in the eyes of
our fellowmen. Human praise is the sweetest music. The greatest efforts of the
human race are directly traceable to the love of praise. Persons behave
according to social norms to win public recognition or at least to avoid public
ridicule. Thus, public opinion is one of the strongest forces influencing the
behavior of people.
Formal Means
of control
Among the
formal means of social control, the importance ones are law, education and
coercion. A brief explanation of these means follow,
Law
Law is the
most important formal means of social control. Early societies depended upon
informal means of social control but when societies grew in size or in
complexity, they were compelled to formulate rules and regulations, which
define the types of behavior and specify the penalties to be imposed upon those
who violate them. Law is a body of rules enacted by legally authorized bodies
and enforced by punishments for their violation. The modem societies are large
in size. Informal means of social control are longer, sufficient to maintain
social order and harmony. Therefore, modern societies had to resort to formal
means of social control.
Education
Along with
law, the importance of education as a means of social control is being
growingly realized. Education is a process of socialization. It prepares the
child, for a social living. It reforms the attitudes wrongly formed by the
children already. Thus, a family may make the child superstitious, education
will1 correct his beliefs and remove his prejudices. It teaches him value of
discipline, social co-operation, tolerance and sacrifice. It instills in him
the qualities of honesty, fair play and a sense of right and wrong. The
importance, of education for creating right social attitudes among the youth
cannot be minimized. It is to note that education in India has miserably failed
to create right social attitudes among the youth of the country and act as an
effective means, of social control.
Coercion
Coercion is
the use of force to achieve a desired end. It may be physical or non-violent.
It is the ultimate means of social control when all other means failed.
Physical coercion may take the form of bodily injury, imprisonment and death
penalty. Physical coercion is without doubt the lowest form of the social
control. Societies would least desire to use it. It may have immediate effects
upon the offender but it does not have enduring effects. If a society has to
depend on external force, it shows its weakness rather than .strength in social
control. Society's best protection lies in the development of its citizens.
Non-violent
coercion consists of the strike, the boycott non-co-operation. A person, who
threatens to withdraw his support to a friend if he does not give up smoking,
is using non-violent coercion to change his action. The students may go on
strike to force the principal withholding of social or economic intercourse
with others to express disapproval and to force acceptance of demands. A
student who teases the girls may be socially boycotted by the other students of
the college. Non co-operation is refusal to co-operate. The teachers may refuse
to co-operate with the principal for his insulting behavior. Nonviolent
coercion can be a successful way of effecting social control. Mahatma Gandhi
used it to force the British Government to grant political independence to
India. (Kumar B, 2007)
CHAPTER 3
Village profile
When people
live in a community they have some cultural traits, norms, values and rules and
regulations which people have to follow to be a part of that community or as a
member. So the people of similar behavior, thoughts and emotions live together
which shows their living styles and it makes them different from others.
3.1 Historical Background
Early
history of District Barkhan is obscure, however, it is said that this area
remained under Muslim Rulers and conquerors of Kandahar and India. The Khetrans country was one of the
sub-districts of Sewistan and of the Hind Province of Tatta. In Akbar's time it was called Janjah. This area was
inhabited by a jatt community of Hindus, who, apparently, had mixed with a
small Pathan tribe which had migrated from Vihowa (Dera Ghazi Khan district)
under Muhammad Khan, who assumed the title of the Khetrans.When the
Lath-Afghans were ousted from Barkhan, it is said the descendants of Isa ruled,
but they were not good administrators and after a good deal of fighting among
the Khetrans for many years, at last
Girazo Khan Mazarani was made Sardar of the Khetrans. He was succeeded by his son Bakhtiar Khan and Bakhtiar
Khan was succeeded by Mir Haji Khan,whose rule is memorable among the Khetrans for a defeat which he inflicted
on the Zhob Kakars. Mir Haji Khan was
succeeded by a few nominal chiefs. Mir Haji
Khan was a strong man and the Khetrans
prospered under him. He also took revenge on the defeat of the Khetrans from Marris by destroying. The fort at Mawand
of Karam Khan Bijrani Marri. Haji Khan died leaving three sons: Umar Khan,
Nawab Khan and Balu Khan. Yet he was succeeded by his brother Sayed Khan, who
was elected by the Khetrans. He too died, leaving three sons: Dost Muhammad,
Sorni Khan and Kadir Bakhsh. Syed Khan was succeeded by his brother Balul Khan.
Babul Khan was however opposed by Nawab Khan and Kadir Bakhsh. Kadir Bakhsh
went to the Marris and gave his
stepmother in marriage to Gazan, the Marri Chief and led Marris Lashkar against the Khetrans, who lost a lot of lives and property during the fights.
Sir Rober Sandeman (then Deputy Commissioner, D.G. Khan), however, intervened
and made peace between Kadir Bakhsh and Babul Khan. Babul Khan was a weak
Sardar. He was succeeded by his son Baluch Khan. The two cousins: Nawab Khan
and Kadir Bakhsh also remained hostile at Baluch Khan and led a Marri Lashkar against the Khetrans and this fighting lasted for
several months. Baluch Khan, however, made peace with Nawab Khan by marrying
his mother, but he was still weakened by the hostile attitude of Kadir Bakhsh
and many lives were lost on both sides.
In 1880, the Khetrans submitted a petition to the British authorities at D.G
Khan, offering to pay revenue and to be taken under British protection. The Khetrans country remained under the
political control of the British authorities of D.G Khan from 1878 to 1883. In
1883, Sardar Baluch Khan met Mr. Bruce, the Political Agent of Thaal Chotiali,
with a Jirga of his tribesmen and the dispute between the Khetrans, Luni and Marris was settled. In 1884, the
Khetrans came under the authority of the Agent to the Governor General in
Balochistan. The Leghari Burkhan circle, comprising two valleys Barkhan and Vitakari, was transferred from Punjab control to Balochistan control in 1884. This
district was brought under the direct administration of Balochistan in 1887, when work on the construction of D.G Khan -
Pishin Road was started and a Tehsildar was posted at Barkhan. In 1889, Barkhan tehsil was transferred to the Zhob Agency
with headquarters at Loralai. This tehsil however was transferred again to Thal
Chotaili Agency in 1892. In October, 1903, the Thal Chotaili and Zhob Agencies
were remodelled and three new agencies; Sibi, Loralai and Zhob were created and
the Barkhan Tehsil was transferred to the Loralai Agency. In 1887, Sardar
Mehrab Khan (born about 1853) succeeded his father Sardar Baluch Khan as Chief
of the Khetrans. Owing to grave
misconduct he was suspended as Sardari for two years and in the meantime his
brother Barkhtiar Khan acted as Sardar. He was however restored to his former
position after the two years had passed. Mehrab Khan was succeeded by his son
Shah Ghazi Khan. Shah Ghazi Khan was a strong man. He used force in taking
possession of agricultural lands belonging to other Khetrans. As a result, many
leading Khetrans, including some Mazaranis,
left Barkhan area as protest and went
to D.G. Khan district in 1892. They however came back in 1933. Shah Ghazi Khan
died in 1942 and his elder son Muhammad Anwar Jan was made Sardar (Tumandar) of the Khetrans. He was elected member of the Provincial Assembly in 1970.
Barkhan
was given the status of a district on 31 December 1991. The
livelihood of the people in this district is based on agriculture and
livestock.The mineral deposits in the area are yet not explored, which are
considered to be in huge quantity. Wheat, tomatoes, fodder, vegetables, jawar,
onion, garlic, and melon, as well as apples, almonds, plums, apricots,
pomegranates and peaches are grown here. The district is devoid of any
manufacturing units and big industries. However, smaller enterprises employing
a small number of the population do exist.
District Barkhan
Country Pakistan
Province Balochistan
Capital Barkhan
Notified
as 31 Dec 1991
District ----
Chief
of the Sardar Abdul Rehman
Tribe Khetran
Member
provincial Sardar Abdul Rehman
Assembly Khetran
3.2 Population
According to
S.E.C.S form the area consists of 86 houses (extended/joint families).
Including nuclear families it becomes 156 houses. The population of the area is
2156 according to S.E.C.S form with 1075 registered voters (NADRA report).
3.3 Topography
Landscape
of Barkhan consists of plains,
valleys and mountains varying in ground elevation ranging from 841 to 2,031
meters above Mean Sea Level (MSL). The district consists of one main valley,
called Barkhan, and several smaller
valleys, which are separated from the main valley by low ranges of hills
running in south-west direction. The
Barkhan valley is enclosed on the north side by scattered low hills, which
divide the drainage water of the valley from the waters flowing into the Rakhni stream in the south-west, and on
the west and north-west side by the great Jandran
range. The valley ends in the Vitakari
valley. To the east of the Sukha
range is the Kharcha valley, which is
bounded by the Phulai range on the
east. The hills in the district belong to the Suleman range; the principal hills are known as Kala Pahar in the north, Karwada, Bibar, Jandra and Mar or Mukhmar in the west, Andari and Sukha in the south, Phulai and Khawaj
in the east, and Mazara, Tagha, Dig
and Deka in the centre and Rakhni
areas. The Ranges mostly consists of earth sand and stones; some portions are
rocky and not easily accessible. The Jandran range is mostly rocky. In the
south runs the Han stream with its tributaries. The Han stream runs in a
south-west direction and carries the drainage of the Han pass and the
south-eastern slopes of the Jandran range. At Dhamani (Barkhan Tehsil) the
stream becomes perennial up to its junction with the Kah River in Dera Ghazi
Khan district. Dhaula stream, its tributary, brings water from the hills
situated to the south of the Bagha valley and irrigates a number of villages in
the Barkhan valley and joins Han in Vitakari. Rakhni and Han join Kah Stream
which then passes into the district of Dera Ghazi Khan.
3.4 Gender Discrimination
Study area is
totally a male dominant society where male is head of households and enjoys the
power of decision making both inside the house and outside the house. All the
decisions of the family are made by the male, who is head of family. In every
family there is a male who is made as head and he has authority to make any
decision he wants. Even female’s opinion is also not asked during making any
decision. Outside the family or political matters male is the one who is active
participant. Male has social bonds with the people and female is bounded in the
boundary line of the house. Females are not even allowed to go outside the
house. This shows that the society is purely a male dominated society.
3.5 Gender Role and Responsibilities
Male is head
of household, breadwinner, decision maker and active participant in the
politics while female’s responsibility is to give birth to the child, taking
care of them, nurturing them and to do all the household activities.
3.6 Social Organization
The
social organization is tribal and the social structure is patriarchal. The
chief of each tribe is known as Tumandar or wadera, while the particular tribe to which the tumandar
or wadera belongs, forms a small aristocracy taking special
precedence in the tribe. The main spoken language in the area is Khetrani. The
decision of the family head is generally considered final in all domestic
affairs and the tribal chiefs enjoy the power of decision-making at the
community and tribal level. The people are predominantly dependent on
agriculture and livestock. However, some people are engaged in industries,
public services, petty trades and other informal sector.
3.7 Religion
Religion is
the most important factor of the society. All the people of locale are Muslim
by religion and Deobandi, Barelvi sect are present.(S.E.C.S form). There is two jamia mosques in the village, one for
barelvi and other for Deobandi. In these mosques, molvi or imam masjid give
religious education to the children. Molvi or imam masjid is considered as a
respected personality because of his religious practices. Many people of the
society come to mosque to ask about religious matters and sometimes small
disputes within the society are also referred to imam masjid for the solution.
He also makes dam darood and gives taveez to the people for different problems.
But sometimes there are disputes among the people on the basis of religion.
Although all the people are Muslim but, because of being divided into two
different sects, there is some contradiction between the beliefs of both sects
that leads to disputes sometimes.
3.8 House Construction
Infrastructure of Houses
|
Infrastructure
|
Percentage
|
Total
|
|
Pakka
|
20
|
I8
|
|
Kacha
|
55
|
50
|
|
Semi pakka
|
22
|
20
|
Source: Socio-economic Census Survey Form (Primary
Field Data)
The village
had all the kacha houses made up of clay and stones. But with the passage of
time these houses were not secure for living, as the ratio of rain per year is
very much that has weaken the walls and roofs of the houses. That’s why people
stared to build pakka houses made of burnt bricks and cement to avoid any risk.
Those people who don’t have enough money to build new houses, they have build
semi pakka houses or reconstructed their mud made houses. All houses have flat roofs with a specific
boundary that is called chaar dewari.
Houses are constructed very near to each other making close streets. Sanitation
and sewerage system is not well organized causing pollution all over.
3.9 Climate
The climate is
moderate in the study area. In summer the temperature ranges from 20 to 40
degree centigrade. June, July and August are the hottest months of the year and
temperature remains 30 to 40 degrees. But the nights are cool. Winter is very cool and the temperature falls
down to -10 degrees during December January and February. These are the coldest
months of the year. The climate is dry and very suitable for agriculture. But
some of the winter crops and fruits like rice, potato, banana, orange and lemon
cannot be cultivated because these crops require very hot temperature during
day and night.
3.10 Dress Pattern
Dress pattern
of both male and female is very unique and pretty different that attracts many
of the people. Male wear shalwar kameez.
Short kameez and long shalwar (wallon wali), that is cultural dress of the society. One male soot
requires 8 to 10 meter of cloth. Shalwar
has a long diameter which makes Ball (curves) from toe to thighs. That’s why
the shalwar is called wallon wali
shalwar. Male also wear balochi topi, wasket (jacket without arms) and pagri
(turban) too. Norozi is used as cultural shoes by the males. Norozi is a very
reliable shoe in that area and almost all the people wear norozi. Boots are also
used but they are very rare. Chitrali topi is also used during winter season.
Female wear
shalwar kameez with dopatta or chadar with silai karahi and the dress
is handmade. Handicrafts are present in a large amount. Female stay all day at
home that’s why they are expert in silai karahi and they stitch their dresses
by themselves. Nathli, baalian, kanda, haar, and bangles
are used as ornaments. These ornaments are also handmade and made at home by
the female.
In kids there
is a variation of dress pattern. They wear shalwar
kameez and pent and shirt too.
3.11 Food Pattern
There is a lot
of variation in the food patterns. Food pattern varies from winter to summer.
In winter, traditional foods are used like dry fruits, sobat and laandi (dry
meat) that are made of meat. Eggs, honey, soup, green tea, qehva, and meat are
used frequently during winter. Lassi, makhan, dahi, cold drinks, fresh
vegetables, seasonal fruits and meat is used during summer. There are some
special foods to serve the guests, that are Sijji, Mori mani (sobat) and dry
meat. These foods are also made on certain special occasions like marriage,
religious festivals like eid and any other musical function or formal
gatherings. Dry fruits are given as the gifts to the guests. Serving with
cultural foods and giving dry fruits as gifts represents the hospitality of the
people. As, they are known as the hospitable people.
3.12 Language
Khetrani is the mother tongue and native language of the people. But Pashto and Balochi are understood by the people There are some families that
speak Balochi language and some speak
Pashto as well. (S.E.C.S form). Language
is also a source of unity among the people.
3.13 Literacy Rate
Literacy rate
is very low because of less education facilities and due to cultural
restrictions. There is a single girls’ primary school and a single boys’
primary school in the village. Cultural restrictions are especially for the
girls and they are not allowed to study with boys. This is the effect of male dominancy.
Girls work at home and they are not allowed to go outside. Apart from cultural
restrictions, the educational facilities for both boys and girls are almost
equal to zero. There is a single primary school for boys where staff is always
absent and there is no infrastructure. Students sit on the floor. Same is the
condition in girls’ primary school. That’s why the literacy rate is very low
among both male and female. According to
S.E.C.S. form only 73 people of the tribe are literate and 19 of them are well
educated.
3.14 Occupation and Economic Status
People are
divided into two major classes. First is middle class and second is working
class. People of middle class have two major occupations: agriculture and
animal rearing, some of them have government jobs too. People of working class work on daily wages or as tenants.
Table 2
|
Occupation
|
Percentage
|
Total
|
|
Agriculture
|
38
|
23
|
|
Animal
rearing
|
30
|
18
|
|
Government
jobs
|
13
|
8
|
|
Tenants
|
10
|
6
|
|
Daily wages
|
8
|
5
|
|
Total
|
100
|
60
|
Source: Socio-economic census survey form
3.15 Conflict Resolution
There
are two main methods of conflict resolution in the district: one is official
and the other is traditional. The official system involves formal judiciary and
the unofficial system is based on the traditional Jirga and Biradri system.
The judicial system functions through civil and Qazi courts. The people
file suit in courts to resolve their disputes but since majority of people are
poor and it is hard for them to hire a counsel/advocate and bear the court fee,
people prefer Jirgas to settle their issues as it is considered
reliable, consumes less time and does not involve any cost. The disputes are
resolved under Jirga through imposition of penalties in the form of
cash, land, kind or females given in marriage from the family which gets
convicted to the family of the affected. People prefer the Biradri (brotherhood)
system, where they take their issues to a senior and influential person of the
community, after a lengthy discussion the disputes are settled. The tribal
retaliation is common and such disputes are eventually settled by compensation
according to the tradition/Riwaj. Murder in retaliation is common and
usually, in such cases compromises are made between the parties on customary
practices and the murderer pays blood money in cash or in the form of property.
3.16 Economy
The economy is
based on two major occupations as described earlier. First one is agriculture
and second one is animal rearing. As, Balochistan is the largest province of
Pakistan according to the area, that’s why the agricultural land is frequent
there. Most of the people have more than 25 murraba land. It makes agriculture,
the most productive source of income for the people. The second major
occupation that is holding the economy, is animal rearing. During the research
it was observed that every household has some animals in their home. Goat,
sheep, cow, buffalo and camel were the most common animals. People believe that
through the cattle they can earn money and these animals are also beneficent
for them in many other ways, because they give milk and they can also use their
meat for eating.
3.17 Family Type
Joint family
system is dominant. People live in joint/extended families. One joint family
may contain 3 to 5 nuclear families (numbers may vary). If a father had five
sons and all of them are married, all of them will be living in a same house
that creates joint family system. This shows the strong bonds and unity among
them. In case of any threat from outside they become united and face the
problem. Nuclear families are present in traces. But they also use to live near
the basic family unit. And they are strongly connected to each other. Only six
nuclear families were seen during the research.
3.18 Caste/Ethnic Groups
Khetran caste is dominant. Two Baloch
families and three Pathan families
are also living in the area of locale. The people are very ethnic and have
psychic unity on the basis of their caste. It creates harmony among them and
keeps them united. Due to the ethnic feelings, there are a lot of disputes
among the people. Ethnicity has both positive and negative effects. Unity and
harmony created by ethnicity is the positive effect. Conflicts and disputes
among different tribes, caused by ethnicity is the negative effect.
3.19 Marriage System
The people are
very strict regarding the marriage. The only type of marriage that is practiced
is, endogamy. It may be caste endogamy or village endogamy. They don’t want to
marry their girls outside their caste because women are considered as a symbol
of honor and they think that if we will marry our girl outside our caste it
will be our insult. But there is a bit flexibility for the boys, who are
allowed to marry outside the village or caste. The other concept behind
endogamy is the creation of strong bonds among the families or bride and groom.
Locale area is a small village and it was seen that all the people of village
are relatives of each other. It creates harmony and unity among the people. In
case of any outside threat, they all become united to face that challenge. If
there is a problem to any person of the society, then all the people help him
to get through that problem. But scientifically, endogamy is harmful because
the exchange of genes don’t happens which results in different diseases.
3.20 Social Gatherings
People of the
village get together in a place in the evening time. That place is called “Autak”. People share happenings of all
day with each other they make a lot of gossips. Political matters are also
discussed. In case of any problem all the members of the community get together
on the Autak and try to find the
solution of that problem. This creates harmony and love among the people and
strengthens the bonds. Following picture was taken on a place where people use
to gather.
3.21 Religious Festivals
Religious
festivals like Eidul fitr, Eidul Azha, and Eid MiladunNabi are celebrated with
great zeal and zest. All people go to the house of each other to give the
greetings of eid. They celebrate such occasions with peace, love and respect.
Different type of games are played by the youngsters. An event called “Nishany Bazi” is arranged by the people.
A stone is placed at almost 100 meter distance and they try to shoot that stone
with guns. Those who shoot the stone, get the reward. The picture of Nishany Bazi is given below.
3.22 Customs of Cooperation
The
people of Barkhan cooperate and
assist each other at the time of marriage by giving gifts and cash to the
groom. People also assist the family of the deceased by providing them with
food for three days till Soyem (third day) and pay money or give goat of
Fatiha (Condolence). People cooperate in case of any emergency in the
area, or at the time of harvesting and sowing. Communities undertake many
important functions such as developing flood irrigation systems including
construction of minor earth filled dams and their maintenance by contributing
in labor and cash according to the size of the land.
3.23 Autak System
Autak/baithak is a place where guests stay. Every house
has Autak for the guests. And autak
is considered as an element of prestige. But there is a Autak of wadera of the
community, where people bring their problems for solution. In case of any small
dispute within the society, the problem is referred to the wadera. Both parties come to the Autak of wadera. After
listening the arguments from the both sides and the witness, the wadera makes decision and both parties
are bound to accept the decision of Wadera.
In this way, the small disputes are resolved in the Autak of Wadera and peace
is maintained.
3.24 Facilities
Electricity,
pure drinking water, electronic media like internet, dish tv and cable is
available. There are tube wells on the wells and motors (water machine) that
provide pure drinking water to the residents. Broadband connections are
available to get linked with the world but most of the people are not familiar
with the use of internet and unfortunately they are not availing this
service. One primary school for girls
and one primary school for boys are present, but educational facilities are
equal to none because there is no staff for teaching and no infrastructure in
the schools. A small shop is present in the middle of the village where all
things for basic needs are present. A hospital is present a half km away from
the locale where first aid is present in case of any emergency. But other
medical facilities are very low in the hospital as it is not equipped with the
advance medicines for serious diseases.
3.25 Kin terms (Patrilineal system)
|
Father
|
Pio, baba
|
|
Mother
|
Amma
|
|
Son
|
Puttar
|
|
Daughter
|
Dhee , cheair
|
|
Grandfather
|
Dada
|
|
Grandmother
|
Dadi
|
|
Wife
|
Zaal, run
|
|
Father’s brother
|
Chacha
|
|
Mother’s brother
|
Mama
|
|
Mother’s brother wife
|
Mami
|
|
Father’s brother wife
|
Chachi
|
|
Father’s sister
|
Pupho
|
|
Mother’s sister
|
Masi
|
|
Brother’s son
|
Bhaatreja
|
|
Sister’s son
|
Bhanreja
|
|
Father’s brother son
|
Sotar
|
|
Mother’s brother son
|
Masat
|
|
Father’s brother daughter
|
Sotir
|
|
Mother’s brother daughter
|
Masaet
|
|
Father’s sister son
|
Masat
|
|
Father’s sister daughter
|
Masaet
|
|
Husband
|
Murrs
|
|
Husband’s father
|
Sohra
|
|
Husband’s mother
|
Sass
|
|
Husband’s sister
|
Ninaanr
|
|
Husband’s brother
|
Dair
|
Photography
Figure 1 Climate of the area
Figure 2 Dress pattern of Baloch people
Figure 3 Sijji (a cultural dish of Baloch people)
Figure 4 Mori mani/Sobat (a cultural dish)
Figure 5 A common place for villagers to sit and communicate
Figure 6 Autak of wadera
CHAPTER 4
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
4.1 Social Control
Social control is a concept that refers to the ways in
which people’s thoughts, feelings, appearance, and behavior are regulated in
social systems. One way this is done through coercion, from imprisoning those
who commit a crime to physicians administering drugs that make difficult
patients more manageable. Social control, however, is mainly done through
socialization in which people come to identify with a social system and its
values and norms, thereby acquiring a stake in maintaining those values and
norms.
Social
control refers to a set of limited values and norms that are considered
acceptable within society. There are two types of social control; informal and
formal. Formal social control is that which is practiced by specific social
agencies which have the role of maintaining order in society such as the police
force. Informal social control is more subtle and reflects on the social
interaction between people for example education. Both types of social control
are effective in controlling the behavior of individuals. Functionalists argue
that these values are ‘vital’ for society to run. However, Marxists believe
that social control is a way for the ruling class to successfully impose their
views and values on society while creating laws that reflects their own
interests.
Informal
social control is something most people experience every day, for example a
child being grounded by their parents. Hirschi found that people are more
likely to take part in criminal activity when their attachment to society
is weakened. This leads to social bonds that hold people together in society;
attachment, commitment, involvement, belief. Hirschi argues that if
attachment to society was to increase, the level of crime would decrease. The
family plays a key role in informal social control. Farrington and West carried
out a study out a study of 411 working class males born in 1953 until their
late 30s. The study found that less than 6% of the total sample accounted for
over 50% of all convictions and the research shows that family traits were a
cause of this. It was more likely offenders would come from homes with poor
parents or lone-parent families. This suggests that informal social
control can lead to crime and therefore is not effective in controlling the
behaviour of individuals. The community is another factor within informal
social control. Murray found that children from underclass families are more
likely to be brought up with little or no concern for societies values. Poorer
communities are being destroyed by the underclass. Overall it has been
suggested that the best way to understand why people commit crimes is because of
the failure of the family thus make informal social control ineffective.
Functionalists
believe that formal social control keeps society together. The legal system
gives people boundaries and creates a system of what is wrong and what is
right. Prosecution provides a means of checking whether that law reflects the
majority of society. Therefore the law exists to maintain ‘social solidarity’.
Durkheim argues that legal systems differ depending on the country. He
believes that in ‘mechanistic societies’ punishment is based on
retribution (a model of law based upon revenge). As societies develop the
punishment turns to imprisonment which allows people to make a mends for
their mistakes. Therefore functionalists view formal social control has
effectively controlling individual’s behavior. However Marxists such as Hall
argue that the criminal justice system operates solely for the benefit of the
ruling class. They believe it is based on controlling the working class and to
ensure that any opposition to Capitalism is removed. They do recognize the why
the legal systems exists yet believe harmful acts performed by the middle-class
are often ignored. Therefore formal social control is effective in controlling
the working class, yet is pursued in the interests of the middle-class.
Overall
Functionalists believe that social control is an effective way of
controlling individuals and see this power as vital if society is to work.
Marxists also believe it is effective in controlling individuals, and
recognize the power middle-class have in controlling the working-class. Formal
control tends to hold more power over people rather that the informal social
control. However the idea of social bonds will prevent individuals from
participating in harmful activities.
4.2
Social Deviance
Deviant behavior is any behavior that is contrary to the dominant norms
of society. There are many different theories on what causes a person to
perform deviant behavior, including biological explanations, psychological
explanations, and sociological explanations. Following are some of the major
sociological explanations for deviant behavior.
4.2.1
Structural Strain Theory
Robert
K Merton developed the Structural
Strain Theory as an extension of the functionalist perspective on
deviance. This theory traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are
caused by the gap between cultural goals and the means people have available to
achieve those goals.
According
to the structural strain theory, Societies are characterized by both culture
and social structure. Culture establishes goals for people in society while
social structure provides (or fails to provide) the means for people to achieve
those goals. In a well-integrated society, people use accepted and appropriate
means to achieve the goals that society establishes. In this case, the goals
and the means of the society are in balance. It is when the goals and means are
not in balance with each other that deviance is likely to occur. This imbalance
between cultural goals and structurally available means can actually lead an
individual into deviant behavior.
4.2.2
Social Control Theory
Social control theory,
developed by Travis Hirschi, is a type of Functionalist theory that
suggests that deviance occurs when a person’s or group’s attachment to social
bonds is weakened. According to this view, people care about what others think
of them and conform to social expectations because of their attachments to
others and what others expect of them. Socialization is important in producing
conformity to social rules and it is when this conformity is broken that
deviance occurs.
Social
control theory focuses on how deviants are attached, or not, to common value
systems and what situations break people’s commitment to these values. This
theory also suggests that most people probably feel some impulse towards
deviant behavior at some time, but their attachment to social norms prevents
them from actually participating in deviant behavior.
4.2.3 Conflict Theory
Conflict theory
emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. This
perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as
fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social
order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the greatest
political, economic, and social resources. When consensus exists, it is
attributable to people being united around common interests, often in
opposition to other groups.
According to conflict theory, inequality exists
because those in control of a disproportionate share of society’s resources
actively defend their advantages. The masses are not bound to society by their
shared values, but by coercion at the hands of those in power. This perspective
emphasizes social control, not consensus and conformity. Groups and individuals
advance their own interests, struggling over control of societal resources.
Those with the most resources exercise power over others with inequality and
power struggles resulting. There is great attention paid to class, race, and
gender in this perspective because they are seen as the grounds of the most
pertinent and enduring struggles in society.
Whereas most other sociological theories focus on
the positive aspects of society, conflict perspective focuses on the negative,
conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who
defend the status quo, avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to
effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage
social change (even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and
powerful people force social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict
theorists, for example, may interpret an “elite” board of regents raising
tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local
college as self-serving rather than as beneficial for students.
Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and
1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective in favor of the functionalist,
the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain considerable interest in
conflict theory. They also expanded Marx's idea that the key conflict in
society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict
between any groups in which the potential for inequality exists: racial,
gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that
unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to
compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the
basis for the ever-changing nature of society. Critics of the conflict
perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory ultimately
attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other
positive aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not
to inherent interests in preserving society and social order. (Anderson & Tylor, 2009)
4.3 Differences between Formal and Informal Social
Control
Social
control can be considered as an important aspect of an individual’s socialization
process. There are some universal norms or rules which should be followed by
members of all societies. Any deviation from these norms may result in a
minimum level of punishment for ensuring the social order. It refers to the
processes of regulation of an individual or group behavior in a society, which
encourages conformity and obedience. It may include social or political
mechanisms. Its two forms are formal and informal controls.
Formal Social Sontrol
Formal
social control is implemented by authorized agents including police officers,
employers, military officers, and others. It is carried out as a last option at
some places when the desired behavior is not possible through informal social
control. The situations and severity where formal control is practiced varies
with countries.
This
is practiced through law as statutes, rules, and regulations against deviant
social behavior. For example, certain laws like prohibition of murder can be
directed at all members of a society. Fishing and hunting regulations are made
for certain groups. Corporate laws are laid for governing the behavior of
social institutions. Formal control is conducted by government and
organizations through law enforcement mechanisms. It can also be conducted
through some formal sanctions including fines and imprisonment. Processes of
formal control in democratic societies are determined and designed through
legislation by elected representatives.
Courts
or judges, military officers, police officers, school systems or teachers, and
government agencies or bureaucrats, enforce formal control.
Informal
social control
It is exercised by a
society without stating any rules or laws. It is expressed through norms and
customs. Social control is performed by informal agents on their own in an
unofficial capacity. Traditional societies mostly embed informal social control
culture to establish social order.
Shame,
sarcasm, criticism, ridicule and disapproval are some of the informal
sanctions. Social discrimination and exclusion are included in informal control
at extreme deviant cases. Self-identity, self-worth and self-esteem are
affected in informal control through loss of group approval or membership. The
severity and nature of informal control mechanisms differ from varied
individuals, groups, and societies.
Informal
is effective in small group settings including friends, family, neighborhood,
work group and others. However, in some large and complex societies, informal
social control and disapproval is ignored easily. At such situations, it is
necessary to follow the formal one.
Some
of the differences of formal and informal social control are:
·
Formal social control includes written,
formalized and codified statements in laws, rules, and regulations. Whereas
informal control does not contain any written rules.
·
Formal control agencies are authorized ones
created by government and informal control agencies are created by social
networks and organizations but not by government.
·
Formal control is much effective and stronger
than informal social control. Any situations which cannot be handled by
informal control are subjected to formal one.
·
Formal control is effective for even large
groups of population but informal control is effective only for a small group
of people.
Social
control, formal or informal, thus helps in regulation of society. The study of
social control includes disciplines of sociology, anthropology, psychology, law
and political science.
Means
of Social Control
Informal
and Formal Means of Social Control
The means by which individuals
are induced or compelled to on form to the usages and life values of the group
are so numerous and varied that a classification is not possible, E.A. toss has
described a number of means that have been employed by social groups throughout
the human history to keep individuals under control.
The important among
them are public opinion, law, custom, religion, morality, social suggestion,
personality, folkways and mores. E. C. Hayes, another American sociologist,
distinguished between control by sanctions and control by suggestion and
imitation. By control by sanctions he meant a system of rewards and
punishments.
According to him,
education s the most effective means of control and the family is the most
significant agency. Karl Mannheim distinguished between direct means of social
control and indirect means of social control. Kimball Young classified the
means of social control into positive and negative means. Reward is a positive
means while punishment is a negative means.
F.E. Lumley classified
the means of social control into two major categories: those based upon force
and those founded on symbols. According to him, though physical force is
indispensable in social control, yet it is not merely the force that can manage
the individuals. Human societies have to rely upon symbolic devices which are
more effective than force.
Lumley put symbolic
methods Into two classes. In the first he included means like rewards, praise,
flattery, education and persuasion which are designed to direct the individual’s
behaviour along certain desirable ends. In the second category he put means
such as gossip, satire, criticism, ridicule, threats, name calling, propaganda,
commands and punishments which aim at restraint and repression.
Luther L. Bernard
distinguished between unconscious and conscious means of control. The most
important among the unconscious means of control are custom, tradition and
convention. The conscious means of control are those which have been
consciously developed and employed by leaders of all types.
According to him
conscious means of control are more effective than unconscious ones though the
influence of the latter also is quite marked. Bernard also distinguished
between exploitative and constructive methods of social control. Exploitative means
are such as punishment, reprisals, intimidation, censorship and repression.
Among the constructive
methods are included revolution, custom, law, education, social reform,
non-violent coercion and belief in supernatural forces. He also divided the means
of social control into negative and positive classes.
In the former class
fall those means which aim at restraining the individuals: while in the latter
category devices utilizing promises and rewards are included. The positive type
of control is said to be more effective as well as more desirable because human
nature responds more easily to promises than to threats, to peaceful means than
to physical coercion.
Some sociologists have
classified the social control into informal means or formal means.
Sympathy, sociability,
resentment, the sense of justice, public opinion, folkways and mores are some
of the informal means of social control. They are very powerful in primary
social groups where interaction is on a personal basis. The effectiveness of
the informal devices of control, though somewhat lessened in modern large
communities wherein contacts tend to be impersonal, may still be observed in
small villages.
Ross cites instances
of such informal social control in “frontier” societies, where order is effectively
preserved without the help of constituted authority. In modern times the
informal methods have given place to formal ones such as laws, education,
coercion and codes.
4.3.1 Informal Means
The informal means of
social control grow themselves in society. No special agency is required to
create them. The Brahmins do not lake meat. They lake meals only after bath.
The Jains do not take curd. They take their dinner before sunset. The Hindu women
do not smoke. One can marry only in one’s caste. The children should respect
their parents. All this is due to informal social control.
It is exercised
through customs, traditions, folkways, mores, religion, ridicule etc. Informal
control prevails over all the aspects of man’s life. Though it is said that
people are not afraid of informal social control, yet informal means of social
control are very powerful particularly in primary groups.
No man wants to suffer
loss of prestige. He does not want to become the target of ridicule. He does
not want to be laughed at by the people. He does not want to be socially
boycotted. On the other hand, he wants praise, appreciation, honour and
recognition by the society.
Thus informal means
like praise, ridicule, boycott etc. effectively control his behaviour.
Moreover, the child through the process of socialization learns to conform to
the norms of the group. A person with socialized attitudes would not do any
work which is socially harmful. Thus socialization also exercises an influence
over him.
Important Means of Informal Control
(i) Belief
Belief is a conviction that a
particular thing is true. It is primarily of five kinds:
(a) The belief in the
existence of an unseen power;
(b) The belief in the
theory of re-incarnation,
(c) The belief in
Nemesis, the Goddess of vengeance,
(d) The belief in
existence of hell and heaven and,
(e) The belief in the
immortality of soul.
All these different
beliefs influence man’s behavior in society. The first belief in the existence
of an unseen power leads a man to right action because he believes that his
actions are being watched by an unseen power. The second belief in the theory
of reincarnation keeps the man away from wrongful acts because he believes that
in order to have a good birth in next life he must do good acts in this life.
The third belief in
the Goddess of vengeance also regulates man’s behavior because he believes that
he will be punished by the goddess of vengeance for his sins. A sinner is
punished here and now. The fourth belief in the existence of hell and heaven
influences a man to virtuous acts and avoid sins in order to go to heaven or
avoid going to hell after death.
Heaven is a place full
of luxuries, fairies and romance. Hell is a place of terror, miseries and
tortures. The fifth belief in the immortality of soul leads man to avoid such
actions as will cause pain to the souls of the deceased ancestors.
In this way beliefs
are powerful influences on human actions. They are vital for human relations.
They define the purposes and interests for the individual and control his
choice of means so that the purposes of the groups may be advanced or at least
not hindered.
No aspect of social
relationship escapes them. Beliefs nay be true or false. They may be founded on
factual or faulty evidence. But the question of their validity does not
necessarily determine their effectiveness as social controls. We act with as
much determination from false beliefs as from factually sound ones.
(ii) Social
Suggestions
Social suggestions
also are powerful means of social control. Suggestion is the indirect
communication of ideas, feeling and other mental states. Such communication may
be made through various methods. The first method is putting the life examples
of great men. We celebrate the anniversaries of Quaid-e-Azam and Allama Iqbal.
We build monuments in the memory of great men.
We place their life
ideals before the people and exhort them to follow these ideals. The second
method of making suggestion is through literature. Books, journals, newspapers
etc. may inspire people to heroic deeds and develop in them national feelings.
The literature may also make people narrow minded, communal, conservative and
superstitious.
The type of literature
one reads will indirectly influence his mind and consequently his behavior. The
third method is through education. The educational curriculum may communicate
certain ideas to the students and make them disciplined citizens. The fourth
method is through advertisements.
Many magazines carry
beautiful advertisement depicting the advantages of visiting certain places and
suggesting the prestige attached to travelling to these places. The
advertisements from the Media may attract the people to a particular tooth
paste. Many of our business enterprises employ advertising to influence
attitudes and, therefore, action. Suggestions may be conscious or unconscious.
It may also be intentional or unintentional.
(iii) Ideologies
Ideology is a theory
of social life which interprets social realities from the point of view of
ideals to prove the correctness of the analysis and to justify these ideals. It
is the projection of a certain ideal. Leninism, Gandhism and Fascism are
ideologies which have analysed social realities and laid down an ideal before the
people. Ideologies influence social life to a very great extent.
Leninism has
influenced the social life of Russians. Hider’s theory of socialism influenced
the Germans to the extent that they began to regard themselves as the supreme
race of the world. Gandhism has influenced social life in India. In the world
we today find a conflict of ideologies. The conflict between U.S.A. and
U.S.S.R. is a conflict of capitalism and communism.
The history of man has
been one of struggle among conflicting ideology; ideologies are powerful
dynamic forces of contemporary social life. They satisfy needs of all men to
believe in a system of thought that is rigorous. They express the vital
interests of social groups and satisfy their desire for a scheme of social
betterment.
They stimulate action.
They provide a set of values. They are motivators of social action. They make
life meaningful. The success of any ideology, as an effective means of social
control depends on many factors. Some of these factors are its completeness and
coherence, its vision of the future, its ability to hold men’s imaginations,
its consistency and its ability to meet criticism.
(iv) Folkways
Folkways are the
recognized modes of behaviour which arise automatically within a group. They
are the behaviour patterns of everyday life which arise spontaneously and
unconsciously in a group. They are in general the habits of the individuals and
are common to a group. They are socially approved. They have some degree of
traditional sanction. It is not easy for the members of a group to violate the
folkways.
They are the
foundation of group culture. If an individual does not follow them he may be
socially boycotted by his group. A particular dress must be worn at a
particular function. The Brahmins shall not take meat. The Jains should not
take curd. The Hindu women should not smoke. Since folkways become a matter of
habit, therefore, these are followed unconsciously and exercise powerful
influence over man’s behavior in society.
(v) Mores
Mores are those
folkways which are considered by the group to be of great significance, rather
indispensable to its welfare. The mores relate to the fundamental needs of
society more directly than do the folkways. They express the group sense of
what is right and conducive to social welfare.
They imply a value
judgment about the folkways. Mores are always moulding human behaviour. They
restrain an individual from doing acts considered as wrong by his group. They
are the instruments of control. In society there are innumerable mores like
monogamy, prohibition, endogamy, anti-slavery etc. Conformity to mores is
regarded necessary.
It is essential for
the members of the group to conform to them. Behaviour contrary to them is not
permitted by society. Certain mores may even be harmful for the physical well
being of an individual, yet these must be obeyed. Thus, mores control man’s
behaviour in society to a very great extent.
(vi) Customs
Customs are the long
established habits and usages of the people. They are those folkways and mores which
have persisted for a very long time and have passed down from one generation to
another. They arise spontaneously and gradually. There is no constituted
authority to declare them, to apply them or to safeguard them. They are
accepted by society. They are followed because they have been followed in the
past.
The importance of
customs as a means of social control cannot be minimised. They are so powerful
that no one can escape their range. They regulate social life to a great
extent. They bind men together. They control the purely selfish impulses. They
compel the individual to conform to the accepted standards. They are held so
sacred that any violation of them is regarded not only a crime but also a
sacrilege. In primitive societies customs were powerful means of social control
but in modern times their force has loosened.
(vii) Religion
Religion also
exercises a powerful influence upon man’s behaviour in society. The term
religion has numerous definitions. Religion is an attitude towards superhuman
powers. It is a belief in powers superior to man. It expresses itself in
several forms like superstition, animism, totemism, magic, ritualism and
fetishism. Religion pervades practically in all the societies, though there may
be different forms of religious beliefs and practices.
The Hindu religion
assigns great importance to ceremonies. At the time of birth, marriage and
death a number of ceremonies are performed. ‘Mantras’ are recited even if one
does not understand their meaning. Religion is a powerful agency in society.
It influences man’s
behaviour. Children should obey their parents, should not tell a lie or cheat,
women should be faithful to men, people should be honest and virtuous, one
should limit one’s desires, man should renounce unsocial activities, are some
of the teachings of religion which influence man’s behaviour. Men should do
good acts is a common teaching of all the religions. Religion makes people
benevolent, charitable, forbearing and truthful.
It may also be noted
that religion may easily be distorted into superstition and dogmatism. Instead
of being an incentive to brotherhood, social justice and ethical idealism,
religion may be used as a tool to make people content with their lot, obedient
to their rulers and defenders of status quo. It may deny freedom of thought. It
may favour poverty, exploitation and idleness and encourage practices like
cannibalism, slavery, untouchability, communalism and even incest.
(viii) Art and
Literature
Art in its narrow
sense includes painting, sculpture, architecture, music and dance. Literature
includes poetry, drama and fiction. Both art and literature influence the
imagination and exert control on human behaviour. The martial music of the
military band arouses feelings of determination and strength.
A classical dance
creates in us an appreciation of our culture. The statute of Mahatma Gandhi
teaches us the virtue of simple living and high thinking. A painting may arouse
in us a feeling of sympathy, affection and hatred. There is always a close
relationship between the art of a period and the national life. The
civilization of any specified time can be judged by an examination of its art.
The Ajanta and Ellora caves give a vivid account of the ancient Hindu culture.
An artist has been called an agent of civilization.
Literature also
influences human behaviour in society. We have ‘good’ literature and ‘bad’
literature. A good literature possesses an indefinable quality which makes it
live through the ages. Ramayana, Bhagvadgita and Mahabharat are classical works
of great social value. On the other hand, detective literature may have its
effect on crime.
Romantic literature
may make the readers passionate while religious literature may make them
virtuous or superstitious. Rousseau in France hastened the French Revolution.
Dickens changed the entire school system in Britain by writing David
Copperfield and his other books. In this way both art and literature exert
control through their influence on the imagination.
(ix) Humour and
Satire
Humour is also a means
of social control. It assumes various forms, depending upon the situation and
purpose. It often serves to relieve a tense situation. Sometimes it is used
with a bad intention to deflate others without a reason. It is also used to
gain a favourable response. Humour controls by supporting the sanctioned values
of the society. Through cartoons, comics and repartees it can support the
values of the society in a form that is light in spirit but effective in
control.
Satire employs wit and
scorn as indirect criticism of actions felt to be vicious and socially harmful.
It exposes by ridicule the falsity and danger of behaviour. Thereby it causes
the people to give up their vicious and harmful action. The Flop Show of Mr.
Jaspal Bhatti .televised by Doordarshan was a great satire on corruption in
Indian society and may perhaps lead one to search within one’s soul.
(x) Public Opinion
The influence of
public opinion as a means of social control is greater in simple societies. In
a village the people are known to one another personally. It is difficult for a
villager to act contrary to the public opinion of the village. Public opinion
greatly influences our actions. For fear of public ridicule and criticism we do
not indulge in immoral or anti-social activities.
Every individual wants
to win public praise and avoid public ridicule or criticism. The desire for
recognition is a natural desire. We want to count for something in the eyes of
our fellowmen. Human praise is the sweetest music. The greatest efforts of the
human race are made to win public recognition or at least to avoid public
ridicule. Thus, public opinion is one of the strongest forces influencing the
behaviour of people.
4.3.2 Formal Means
Among the formal means
of social control the important ones are law, education and coercion.
A Brief Explanation of these
Means Follows
(i) Law
Law is the most
important formal means of social control. Early societies depended upon
informal means of social control but when societies grew in size and complexity
they were compelled to formulate rules and regulations which define the
required types of behaviour and specify the penalties to be imposed upon those
who violate them. Law is a body of rules enacted by legally authorised bodies
and enforced by authorized agencies.
It defines clearly
rights, duties as well as the punishments for their violation. The modern
societies are large in size. Their structure is complex consisting of a number
of groups, organisations, institutions and vested interests. Informal means of
social control are no longer sufficient to maintain social order and harmony.
Perforce modern societies had to resort to formal means of social control.
In modern society
relationships are of a secondary nature. Security of life and property, as well
as the systematic ordering of relationships make formalization of rules
necessary. Law prescribes uniform norms and penalties throughout a social
system. The body of law in every state is being increased. What was in mores
and customs earlier has now been formalized into a body of law.
The Hindu Marriage
Act, 1955 has laid down the rules regulating the marriage among Hindus. It has
recognised the right of a Hindu woman to divorce her husband. A number of laws
have been enacted governing food handling, fire protection, sewage disposal,
traffic, sex regulation, entertainment and education etc. Law prohibits certain
actions, for example, Anti-untouchability Act prohibits untouchability in any
form and a person practising untouchability is liable to punishment.
Prohibition Act
forbids drinking at public places. Smoking in cinema halls is prohibited under
law. A uniform civil code if and when enacted may remove the social barriers in
the Indian society. In this way, law exercises a powerful influence upon the
behaviour of people in modern societies. Today law takes an ever larger part in
total social control.
(ii) Education
Along with law, the
importance of education as a means of social control is being growingly
realized. Education is a process of socialization. It prepares the child for
social living. It reforms the attitudes wrongly formed by the children already.
Thus, a family may make the child superstitious education will correct his
beliefs and remove his prejudices.
It teaches him value
of discipline, social cooperation, tolerance and sacrifice. It instills in him
the qualities of honesty, fair play and a sense of right and wrong. The
importance of education for creating right social attitudes among the youth
cannot be minimised. It is sad to note that education in India has miserably
failed to create right social attitudes among the youth of the country and act
as an effective means of social control.
(iii) Coercion
Coercion is the use of
force to achieve a desired end. It may be physical or non-violent. It is the ultimate
means of social control when all other means fail. Physical coercion may take
the form of bodily injury, imprisonment and death penalty. Physical coercion is
without doubt the lowest form of social control.
Societies would least
desire to use it. It may have immediate effects upon the offender but it does
not have enduring effects. If a society has to depend on external force, it
shows its weakness rather than strength in social control. Society’s best
protection lies in the development of ‘fit’ citizens.
Non-violent coercion
consists of the strike, the boycott and non- cooperation. A person who
threatens to withdraw his support from a friend if he does not give up smoking,
is using non-violent coercion to change his action. The students may go on strike
to force the Principal to ensure them adequate library facilities.
Boycott is the
withholding of social or economic intercourse with others to express
disapproval and to force acceptance of demands. A student who teases the girls
may be socially boycotted by the other students of the college. Non-cooperation
is refusal to cooperate.
The teachers may
refuse to cooperate with the Principal for his insulting behavior. Non-violent
coercion can be a successful way of effecting social control.
Chapter 5
SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF KOKIANI TRIBE
Basic unit of
social structure is family. The tribe consists of many joint families and some
nuclear families too. The society is divided into different segments that are
based on lineage. Those families having common ancestor combine together to
make a segments. There are three segments in the tribe named Jhamat, Wadery and
Lohaar. The Jhamat segment consists of 8 families and they have a common
ancestor named Ahmed Khan. Wadera segment has 25 families and their common
ancestor is Kareem Bakhsh. Lohaar segment consists of 23 families with acommon
ancestor named Shero Khan.
5.1 History of Kokiani Tribe
History of kokiani tribe starts from the freedom of
Pakistan. Before independence, Hindus, Sikhs, Pakhtuns and Khetran lived together in the territory of Kokiani tribe, where
they are living now. After the freedom, Hindus, Sikh and Pakhtun moved from
that area. The remaining people were only Khetran. There were three brothers
Ahmed khan, Shero khan and Kareem bakhsh who lived in one house. Their father
name was Faoj ali who was very old at that time and he died after a few years.
In the start there was only one house and they have one guest room(Autak). With
the passage of time when all three of them got married and they had child, the
population started increasing. All three of them died till 1990. But two
generations were produced which are now increased to three. The population and
infrastructure kept increasing with time which turned into a tribe named
kokiani. Kokiani is a term derived from koka, a tool used by Lohar. The ancestor of this tribe was
Lohar by occupation that’s why the tribe was named as kokiani a sub caste of
Khetran caste. At the present time the tribe is divided into three segments,
one caste and two sub castes and they are living in Basti Gadaai.
5.2 Structural
Tree
5.3 Role and Principles of Kinship
Kinship
plays an important role in regulating behaviour and the formation of social
recognition and cultural relationship born out of descent and marriage. In Kokiani
tribe the entire society distinguishes itself in a number of relationships, by
their descent as well as differentiating relationships by marriage or affinity.
5.3.1 Family
The
family is the basic unit, and it plays an important part in providing proper
training and socialization to the individuals to groom them as responsible
members of the society. It also performs a number of functions. The most
elemental function is that of reproduction, protection, economic support and
formal and informal education of the family. People of Kokiani tribe live in a
male dominated society, and males are the natural heads in each household.
Descent is traced through father. Here the males are considered to be superior
and enjoy profound respect and always get preference over women. The male is
considered important because he keeps his patriarchal name moving to the next
generation. Customarily the property is inherited by the male. The females are
normally forced to leave their right of property in favour of brothers, and
receive inheritance only if they have no brother. Land is treated as gift from
father to son transferred from one generation to the next. Widows are given one
eight share in the property, though they are forbidden to take it away. Widows,
if they are not very old, are normally remarried within the family; so village
elders see no harm in giving a piece of property, as inheritance including
land, houses and share of commercial property. All members belonging to the
same family owe loyalty to each other. Residence pattern of the village is also
patrilocal. After marriage a woman moves from the house of her parent to the
husband’s house. Sons mostly keep on living with their parents even after their
marriage.
Table 3
Types of Families
|
Serial
no
|
Family
type
|
Number
|
Percentage%
|
|
1
|
Joint
|
58
|
82
|
|
2
|
Nuclear
|
12
|
18
|
|
3
|
Total
|
70
|
100
|
5.3.2 Marriage
Marriage is another important principle of
Kinship system that plays an important role in maintaining peace. The type of
marriage practiced in study area is endogamy and mostly cousin marriages are
preferred. Further sub types of endogamy, that is practiced, are; village
endogamy and caste endogamy. The society is patrilocal that’s why the groom
lives with his parents either he has to live in nuclear family or the joint.
Concept Behind Endogamy
Honor, Ethnicity, Unity, purity and close
interaction with each other are the reasons behind endogamy. Here honor means
women. By endogamy, a woman remains in the same caste and same village. That’s
why tribal people practice endogamy.
Marriages
and Social Control
§ Marriage creates strong bonds between two
families/groups.
§ It creates alliances between two groups which
strengthens them both.
§ Small disputes are solved within the house.
§ Inviting other tribal people is a sign of
respect that causes social relations and a friendly environment between two
tribes.
§ Cultural dance (raind) at marriages attracts the attention of other people and
they come to dance without invitation. Such gatherings prove helpful in
maintaining social order.
§ Marriage within the caste or village creates
strong social bonds and harmony among the people of same tribe. In case of any
outside threat, the people become together.
5.3.3
Age Sets
Age
sets are the important principle of kinship system that defines the roles and
behaviors of the people living within a society. People living in a society
have different relationship with one another and interact with them
accordingly. They have dealing with each other though the nature of dealing
might be different with different people. For example, members of a family may
have different relation with each other; dealing with father would be different
from that of a young brother. This would tell us that one cannot have the same
sort of dealing with other members in the same society; or even with one’s
relations. It defines roles and responsibilities of people in the family and
outside the family. In a family head of household is the person having hold and
authority in all matters. The most aged member of the family is most respected
by all members. He maybe father or grandfather. All the young members of family
must respect and obey the elders. And it’s the responsibility of head of
household to fulfill all the basic needs and requirements of family members. In
this way a family remains in control through age sets.
5.3.4 Sides of the Family
Two
sides of the family are patrilineal and matrilineal. Descents are traced
through father that makes the society patrilineal. The property is transferred
from one generation to another and it is transferred from father to son. Male
holds the authority of property and he is responsible for making all decisions
about the property. The females are normally forced to leave their right of
property in favour of brothers, and receive inheritance only if they have no
brother. Land is treated as gift from father to son transferred from one
generation to the next. Widows are given one eight share in the property,
though they are forbidden to take it away. Widows, if they are not very old,
are normally remarried within the family; so village elders see no harm in
giving a piece of property, as inheritance including land, houses and share of
commercial property. Patrilineal system further makes patrilocal system.
5.4 Gender
There
is a lot of discrimination that can be seen in Kokiani tribe with respect to
gender. As the society is male dominated, the females are respected though but
they are not given equal opportunities like male.
5.4.1 Women’s Role in Family
Male
enjoys the power as head of household. Female’s role in the house is just
limited to child production, their nourishment, taking care of them and
performing household activities. After the female reaches the age of puberty,
she is not even allowed to go outside the house. All facilities are provided to
them in the house. They spent their all day in the house. In case of any
medical emergency, there is a family doctor which is called to home for their
treatment. Female have no influence in family matters like decision making
about marriages, property or political decisions. They are not even asked about
these decisions because there is always a male who play his role as head in all
important matters of the family.
5.4.2 Women’s Role in Society
Women’s
role in the society is almost negligible. They are not seen outside the house,
working as teachers, nurses or any other profession. The only profession they
have, is the profession of housewife. Literacy rate among female is almost
equal to zero which makes their lives more limited and bounded to just their
houses. She is just responsible for the socialization of the child and
performing household activities.
5.4.3 Women’s Role in Politics
Women
cannot even think about being the part of political. She is never allowed to
interfere in political matters. During the elections, most of the females don’t
go to cost their vote because they are not allowed by the male members of
family.
5.4.4 Women’s Role in Economy
Like
family and political institutions, female have no role in the economy and any
decisions related to economy. Male holds all authority related to property and
he is responsible for all economic decisions. If male starts any new business,
it’s not necessary for him to ask the opinion of female. Male is responsible
for earning income. During the research only three females were found having a
government job. Those three females belonged to families of wadera. No other
female was seen as an active participant in economy.
5.4.5 Women’s Role in Education
Literacy
rate among the females of kokiani tribe
is almost equal to zero. Female have no role in education too. Female child are
not sent to school because people think that female education is not necessary.
They think female have to get married and she just have to take care of his
child and to do household activities that’s why it’s not necessary for her to
get education. But by socializing their children females informally educate
them at home. That’s the only role they play in the institution of education.
5.5 Hierarchy and Leadership
Tribe
consists of hierarchal setup based on leadership. Wadera is head and leader of all the tribe. He has the authority to
make any decision about the society. He is respected by all members of the
society and his opinion in all matters, have great importance and value than
anybody else. He is the most active politician of the society. All political
matters of the society are concerned to him and he is responsible for decision
making. Wadera enjoys a great respect
at family and society level. He is the most respectable member of the society
outside the tribe. After wadera, the head of segment(phalli) is the most powerful person of the society. He is called Motbir. He also enjoys a great respect
and reputation in the society. He is responsible for all problems of the
segment. All small problems are brought to him for solution. If the dispute is
very severe in nature then it it forwarded to Wadera. Motbir has influence in decisions of wadera, and wadera asks
his opinion in all socio-political matters. Motbir has also many alliances
outside the tribe. Zameendar or
landlord is very last in hierarchy. The person who is economically most strong
in the tribe is also considered equal to zameendar.
Both of them have equal respect and status in the society. Their opinion in all
matters is asked by wadera and they
have influence in decision making. This hierarchy in leadership plays an
important role in helping a society to run smoothly. Apart from this,
leadership can also be seen at household level. Every family has a person who
enjoys the authority as a head of family. He is responsible for all decisions
related to family. He has authority to make any decision he wants. It helps the
family (basic unit of society) to run effectively.
5.5.1 Leadership From One Generation to Another
In case
of death of wadera, the pag (turban) will be transferred to his elder son. If
he has no son then the most respectable member of his biradri will be made wadera on the basis of his leadership skills.
This decision will be made by the motbir, landlord and other well known persons
of the tribe. But it happens very rarely that wadera has no son. Motbir is also
replaced by his son if he is dead. So leadership is gifted in heritage by the
descents.
5.6 Family and Socialization
The family is the basic unit, and it plays an
important part in providing proper training and socialization to the
individuals to groom them as responsible members of the society.
Social control and socialization are closely related to each other. Social
control is a part of socialization. During the process of socialization the
process of social control also is in operation. Through socialization social
control becomes effective. In order to maintain the social order there are
definite procedures in society. These customs and procedures become a part of
man’s life and man gets adjusted to the society. As a matter of fact, societies
depend heavily upon effective socialization to internalize social norms and
values as the individual’s guides and motives to action. Through socialization
societies aim to control the behavior of its members subconsciously. The
various agencies of socialization like family, state, school, club etc are also
the agencies of social control. They exercise regulatory influence over the
behavior of the individual. Both informal and formal means of socialization are present.
Socialization through school and madarsa
is done formally and at family level norms and values are told to the child to
be a helpful member of the society.
5.6.1
Informal Institutions of Socialization
Family, society, friends and madarsas are the informal institutions
of socialization. When a child is born he is socialized by his parents. He is
told about the norms and values of the society. When he uses abusive language
his parents tell him to not abuse anyone. Children fights are common everywhere.
When the children fight with each other they are told not to fight, if they
fight again they are slapped by the elder brother, father or uncle. When they
grow a little old they see the people around them and they copy their elders.
If the environment of house is peaceful and friendly, they can learn many
things from their house. After that they start making friends from the society.
Friends also have great impact on the character and mentality of any person. If
the friends are good then he will be socialized by his friends. Madarsas and mosques are also presnt to
socialize the people. The children get religious education from madarsas.
Religious education is also a great tool of socialization for them. Conformity
to religious norms and values is taught there which is very helpful for
building a good personality of the child. That’s how institutions of
socialization are working to socialize the people and to maintain social order
in the society.
5.6.2
Formal Institutions for Socialization
The only formal institution for the
socialization in the society is the school. School is a place where a child is
sent to get education. Both religious and scientific education is given to
them. They are socialized by their teachers, they are taught what is wrong and
what is right, they are taught what to do and what not to do. The education
they get from the school is very helpful in building their personality. The
discipline is taught to them. In this way, formal institutions socialize the
children to build a peaceful society.
5.7
Caste and Ethnicity
Strong ethnicity is very effective in
maintaining social order. Ethnicity creates an element of respect between
people. Helping out each other, coming close to each other and the sense of
same identity, creates harmony and unity among ethnic groups. The study area is
divided into different sub castes. Major caste is Khetran that has 56 sub
castes. Each sub caste is known as ethnic group, having different cultural
patterns and lifestyle. That’s why people are emotionally attached to their sub
caste because of same identity. This attachment creates strong bonds and
harmony among the people of same caste. Ethnicity also creates unity among the
people. Ethnicity is mainly created because of the caste system. People of same
caste are very helpful and friendly to each other. They always cooperate with
each other. If any person in the village have problem, the other people are
willing for his help him and they always help him out. If a single person of
the village has dispute with any person from outside, it means two castes have
dispute with each other because the dispute of a single person is considered as
the dispute of whole community. Such type of strong bonds and harmony within
the community leads to peace and social control among that society.
5.8
Geographical Impact
The
kokiani tribe is situated on a plain land surrounded by mountains. All the
houses are located very near to each other and houses are not scattered. These
geographical settings force the residents to keep peace with their neighbors
and all other members of society. They know that they have to survive there
that’s why there is unity and harmony among the people. Geographical settings
outside the tribe are also helpful for the people to maintain brotherhood and
peace with each other. Tribes are also located at walking distance from other
tribe. The people of two tribes living near to each other have to keep peace
with their neighbors. In case of any conflict there is a great of economic loss
and murder too. These restrictions lead to strong socio-political alliances with
each other and both tribes remain in control.
Chapter 6
INFORMAL MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
This analysis
is based on the interviews and data collected during the field work. Informal
means of social control among Baloch
tribe is focused in this study. Means of control are used to minimize the
degree of deviance in any society. So before analyzing informal means of
control it is necessary to know that what is deviance.
6.1 Social Deviance
Sociologists
define deviance as behavior that is recognized as violating expected rules and
norms. It is simply more than nonconformity, however; it is behavior that
departs significantly from social expectations. In the sociological perspective
on deviance, there is subtlety that distinguishes it from our commonsense
understanding of the same behavior. So, we can say that violation of expected
norms and values is called deviance.
Every society introduces some ways to control
that deviant behavior. The ways adopted to control deviant behavior are called
means of control. It has been found that both informal and formal means of
control are being practiced in the study area. There are a lot of disputes
between people of tribal areas and the reasons behind those conflicts are given
below:
6.2 Reasons behind Disputes
i) Land
Possession
Tribes
are situated near to each other and they possess land nearly. The possession of
land in the same area causes conflict between the land holders. Sometimes
people try to illegally possess the land of others by the use of power. The
land is considered as symbol of honor in that society. That’s why the people
are ready to kill others and also to get died to protect their land. Such cases
lead to severe disputes among the people of same tribe or the people of other
tribes.
ii)
Honor/Zann (to some extent)
A woman
is a symbol of honor in that society. Social
relationship or sexual contacts with women causes conflict because it is
considered as a great crime, a crime having no forgiveness. Such cases are very
rare because the punishment is very strict for such issues. The boy and girl
who are seen having sexual contact with each other are called kala and kali. The only punishment for them is to kill them on the sight.
The fear of being killed, minimize such deviance but sometimes such cases can
be seen.
iii)
Money
People
give and take loans to each other and sales are done at loan too. Not paying
the money in time/not returning the loan in time results in conflict. The
person who has borrowed money from the other person, is liable to pay the money
within due date. But sometimes he is unable to return the money due to some problems
and some people refuse to return the money. Loan money is the of the person who
has borrowed it to the other, that’s why they become ready to fight for their
right and it results in disputes.
iv) Murder
Sometimes
the fight between the people of two different tribes (due to any reason)
results in the murder of one party. Such disputes are very harmful for both
tribes because it may result in further murders. Vair is a term used for the revenge of any murder. The person or
tribe who don’t take revenge of their murder, are considered coward. That’s why
the disputes started because of murder are very severe in nature. And it is the
most common reason for disputes among the tribal people.
v) Children’s Fights
Children
from different tribes study together at school or mosque. Sometimes, while
playing with each other they start fighting for small things. If the fight
results in physical harm of any child then the next morning that child comes
with his elders and it starts the conflict that can be bloody and very severe
at the end.
vi)
Abusive Language
Abusive
language is considered as insult. And insulting someone publically results in
conflict.
These
are the main reasons of conflict among tribal people. Deviance created by these
disputes is controlled through formal and informal means of control.
Case study
Two
tribes kokiani and chinaal (two tribes) were
demographically near to each other. Both tribes possessed land very nearly. The
dispute started on possession of land. Land was actually property of kokiani tribe but the other tribe tried
to occupy the land. The dispute started and resulted in the murder of a person
of chinaal tribe. The dispute
continued for five years and ended at agreement through marka.
6.3 Formal Means of Control
Formal laws, rules, courts, police, FC, BC,
levies force etc are present as formal means of social control. They play their
role in regulating the society but the perception of people show that formal
means of social control are not effective in maintaining social order in tribal
settings. (Source: interviews).
People are not afraid off formal control system. An interviewee told that a
person was killed in the city at almost 50 meter distance from the police
station and policemen were watching that but they did nothing and silently
walked away. Many interviewees told that their cases are still pending in the
courts and they are waiting for the decision. They told that decisions are not
based on justice in the courts. None of the respondent was satisfied with
formal control system in the study area. This perception shows that how
important are informal means of social control in the tribal areas in order to
maintain social order in the society.
6.4 Informal Means of Social Control
Informal
means of social control have key importance in maintaining social order among
Baloch tribes. As stated earlier, that formal means of control are not
effective enough to control the society that’s why formal means of social
control play their role. Despite of typical informal means of control like
norms, values, customs and socialization etc, some other informal means of
control are also practiced. These can be called as informal techniques adopted
by the society itself to maintain social order. These techniques including
informal means are:
i) Jirga
ii)
Marka
iii) Bhaa/chari
iv) Qasam/Quran
v) Leadership/wadera system
vi) Women as a symbol of honor
vii) Male dominancy
viii) Strong ethnicity
ix) Religion & Religious practitioners
x)
Socialization
xi) Norms, values and customs
xii) strict punishments
xiii) Social gatherings & festivals
xiv) Weapons
xv) Music
xvi) Livelihood
xvii) Public opinion
Through
all these informal means of control the tribal people try to maintain social
order in the society. These may vary from one society to another but these are
considered very powerful and effective in maintenance of social order
(according to people’ perception).
6.4.1 Jirga
Jirga is a tribal assembly of elders which takes
decision by consensus. It is common among most of the tribal areas of Pakistan.
Jirga is often found in circumstance involving a dispute between two
individuals; a jirga may be a part of dispute resolution mechanism in such
cases. The disputants would usually begin by finding a mediator, choosing
someone such as a senior religious leader, a local notable, or a mediation
specialist. The mediator hears from the two sides and forms a jirga of
community elders, taking care to include supporters of both sides. The jirga
then considers the case and after discussing the matter comes to a decision
about how to handle it, which the mediator then announces. Punishment is given
through high fine, (that is called chatti) land and irjaai
(unborn girl) and dispute is resolved between two parties.
Process
of Decision Making
Traditional
Jirga process is very straightforward and simple in its manner. The Jirga is
comprised of the ‘waderas/leaders, from different tribes. The ‘Leaders’ act as
judges. All the parties involved are required to respect the Jirga members. If
the parties have any reservation, those need to be shared in the pre-mediation
process and stage. During the Jirga proceedings, all the parties will address
the members of the Jirga and not the rival parties directly. Members of the
Jirga have a very strong authority to stop parties from speaking if necessary
and no offence is taken. Jirga hears and examines the parties and witnesses to
discover the facts of the dispute. Following a thorough discussion with the
parties, Jirga members analyze the dispute, keeping in mind the traditional,
religious and socio–economic circumstances. After probing inquiries, the Jirga
makes every feasible effort to find an unbiased and adequate solution of the
problem. The Jirga's pronouncement is usually based on local traditions. In crucial
cases, the Jirga asks parties to clear themselves of the charges by swearing
upon the Holy Quraan, which aids in bringing closure to the conflict. At that
point, the dispute stands resolved. This is prevalent throughout the
Balochistan region, but its practice and applications varies slightly from area
to area. The Jirga proceedings generally last for a few days depending on the
gravity and complexity of the conflict or dispute and the number of parties
involved. Jirga endeavors to find an agreeable and acceptable solution to the
conflict as early as possible and strives for its enforcement.
Advantages
of Jirga System
The
institution of Jirga has come to the rescue of Baloch people as and when
they came to blows against each other. Few advantages are given below:
(i) Jirga administers
swift justice. In view of peculiar Pukhtoon social structure, one cannot afford
to wait for snail-sped disposal of cases by state judiciary. For instance,
sometimes a small dispute may lead to bloodshed. Here a case is cited to
understand that role of Jirga. In the Rakhni area of Barkhan, two families led
by Azam jan and Younas Khan clashed over matrimonial issue. The daughter of
Azam jan was engaged to the son of Younas Khan. However, after a year or so,
Azam jan changed his mind and decided to break the engagement as in his opinion
his daughter’s fiancé was not having good moral character. Younas Khan and his
family took serious note of it which resulted into gun battle between the two
sides. The case was heading towards bloodshed when Jirrga intervened and
resolved the dispute.
(ii) Besides
petty family disputes, Jirga helps in resolving community-wide issues
and saves the community from surge of intra-tribal clash.
Jirga is an institution which imparts
positive norms of social responsibility, reconciliation, protection rights of
the oppressed, freedom of speech and respect for justice and fair play to the
upcoming generation.
(iii)Jirga
dispenses justice to all and sundry irrespective of their social status,
influence and wealth.
There were
several positive points presented by the respondents when they were asked to
identify merits of Jirga system in their area. The merits are summarized
as follow:
§ It works as an effective conflict
resolution tool
§ It comes up with solution to problems
§ It resolves disputes peacefully
§ It transforms enmity into friendship
§ It is an inexpensive justice system
§ It is a collective approach to dispute
resolution
§ It brings about durable solution
§ It protects people from intricacies
§ Jirga announces verdict in the light of
local culture, customs and traditions
§ There is real democracy in the Jirga
system
§ It punishes oppressor and helps the
oppressed
§ Besides local culture, customs and
traditions, it gives weight to the teachings of Quran and Sunnah
§ Justice is not delayed in Jirga system
§ Everyone is equal before Jirga law
§ Structurally, Jirga is quite a
simple body
§ It promotes social harmony, peace and
tranquility
§ Everyone can express his opinion in
jirga
Disadvantages of jirga system
§ Normally the jarga members are
illiterate. As such their decisions are influenced by ignorance.
§ In some cases, decisions are
influenced by politics.
§ In many instances, verdicts of Jirga
are not in consonance with modern days trends.
§ Jirga has always promoted inhuman traditions
like Wani, and forced expulsion of culprits from his area.
§ Rich and resourceful people dominate
proceedings of jirga.
§ Force is used in execution of Jirga
verdict.
§ Jirga members are generally ignorant of law.
§ Sometimes Jirga fails to
execute its verdict.
§ No fixed criterion exists for
nomination of Jirga members.
§ Members fleece money in return of
their favour with one party or the other.
§ Since Jirga members belong to
different tribes or different sections of the same tribe, therefore their intra
tribal friction adversely affects decisions of jirga.
§ Jirga members have been performing duty
voluntarily, but in recent days some of them have started asking for
compensation.
§ The
biased approach of Jirga members promotes social evils and lawlessness
in the society.
Concluding
Jirga is integral part of Baloch social
organization. Although state institutions (formal) have replaced this informal
body to a great extent, but its vitality did not vanish. Jirga system has been a success story that is why the concept has
been incorporated into state institutions of Pakistan. With the passage of
time, some negative trends like conservatism, male chauvinism, political and
factional biases and corruption have permeated into the institution of which
human rights organizations and Government have taken notice. However its merits
are more than the demerits. The administration of speedy and inexpensive
justice, proficient conflict resolution, transformation of enmity into
friendship, effective execution and regard for moral and cultural values; are
positive attributes of jirga.
Interestingly, the tribal community is willing for the of continuation the
institution of Jirga.
Case
study
A person of a tribe (Eshani) was killed by the person of other tribe (mazrani) on the dispute of land. The
conflict remained for two years between these tribes. Mazrani tribe decided to resolve the conflict and they admitted
their crime. The decision went to jirga and after all the proceedings it was
decided that mazrani will pay chatti (amount of money to be paid as
punishment) of amount 20 lac and return the hold of land to the other tribe. In
this way dispute was resolved.
6.4.2
Marka
Marka is a kind of apology or asking for forgiveness
for the mistake/oppression. The oppressor party accepts the crime they have
done and asks the oppressed party to forgive them, and they also tell that we
don’t want fight anymore and we want to resolve this dispute as soon as
possible and we are also ready for any punishment we deserve. First of all a
mediator is selected by the oppressed party. They have full right to select the
mediator of their own choice.
Mediator
Mediator is a person who has the authority to
make the decision. This authority of making decision is given to him by the
both parties. A mediator must be the Wadera/Leader, not just wadera of one
subcaste/ethnic group but the whole caste. Sardar Abdul Rehman Khetran is the
leader of all Khetran caste so, now days he is selected as mediator. If the
oppressed party is not willing to select him as a mediator then they can select
any religious practitioner who must be Peer. A Peer is selected because the people
of community have blind faith and they are the followers of those religious
practitioners. Khawaja Hamid Taunsvi, Khawaja Ameen Taunsvi and Aagha sahib
from Quetta are those peer who are selected as mediator. After the mediator is
selected, both parties are bound to accept the decision made by him. They have
no other option except accepting the decision.
Date
and Venue
After the mediator is selected, date and
venue is selected. Marka consists of
two days. First venue for marka is always at the place of oppressed party. The
reason is, the oppressor party comes to their home for settling the dispute and
asking forgiveness. It is a symbol of honor for the oppressed party and symbol
of guilt for the oppressor. The second venue is the house of oppressor party. Then date is decided by the mediator after
asking both parties, either they can manage on this date or not. Date is
decided with the mutual consent of both parties. After the date and venue is
fixed, both parties are bound to come on the due date.
First
Day
At the first day of marka, arrangements are
made on the house of oppressed party. Mediator is given a special place as a
symbol of respect and honor. The oppressor party comes with their sardar/wadera
and all the respected and well known members of their society. The number of
people is not fixed, it always vary. Number may vary from 30 to 50. After they
arrive at the given time, they are welcomed with great respect by the sardar of that community and by the
Mediator, who is already present there. Both parties sit together in the
presence of Mediator. Mediator is informed by both parties about the dispute
and the oppressor party says that we are feeling guilty for our mistake/crime
and we want to end the dispute as soon as possible, and we are ready to get any
punishment we deserve. The oppressed party also says to the Mediator that, we
have given you the authority of decision and we will also accept any decision
you will make. After listening the arguments of both parties and knowing the
intensity of dispute and crime, the Mediator excuses the all Kachari(gathering)
for few minutes and takes his time to think about the type and amount of fine.
When he has decided the punishment, he announces that I am going to tell the
amount of punishment, will all of you accept the decision I will make. Sardar
of both parties affirm the announcement made by Mediator. Then the Mediator
informs both parties about the type and amount of punishment.
Types
of Punishment
Type of punishment depends upon the intensity
of crime. If the crime is very severe in nature e.g more than two murders then
an irjaai (unborn girl) has to be
given by the oppressor party as a punishment. This trend has almost come to an
end now because people are not willing to give their girl as punishment. The
party that refuses to give their unborn girl, they are asked to pay the
punishment in the form of money or land. Now the amount of money and land also
depends upon the intensity of crime. The punishment for a murder is 40 Lac
rupees and the punishment for elopement is 10 million rupees. But it depends
upon the Mediator; he is the one who is responsible for fixing the amount of
fine. This amount of fine either in form of cash, land or irjaai is called
Chatti.
Patki
After the amount of fine has been announced
by the Mediator, the oppressor party requests the Mediator to less some amount
of fine in the name of Patki. Patki means to less the amount for the
sake of sardar and other aged and
respected people of the oppressor party. The Mediator says that it is the right
of oppressed party if they want to less the amount or not. It is a tradition
that they must less some amount of fine. After consulting with all members of
their community, the sardar of
oppressed party announces that we lessen that amount for the sake of sardar and other respected members. The
amount which is forgiven is called patki.
Garrwali
When the amount of fine is fixed, the date is
asked by the Mediator for paying the amount. The amount is always to be paid in
installments. One month after the marka,
is usually the first date of installment. When the date is fixed, the Mediator
asks both parties and to embrace each other. All the people of gathering stand
up and everyone give hug to each member of other party. The members of
oppressor party say that we are sorry for our mistake, from now on we are
brothers and we have no more clashes. This is a custom of marka and it is called Garrwali.
Grand
Feast
After all the formal proceedings of marka,
there is a grand feast that is arranged by the oppressor party. Sardar of both
parties, the Mediator and the guest party are served with the feast. The feast
always consists of the meat of goat and sheep. It is a special kind of food
that is served. It is called ubli boti
(boiled meat). Mori mani (sobat) is
also presented and the meat is always in frequent amount. Ubli boti and Mori mani
are the cultural dishes of that area. When all the people finish with eating,
the feast and the marka of first day comes to an end. With the end of marka,
the dispute between both parties is resolved.
Second
Day
The arrangements for second day of marka are
made on the house of oppressor party. The role of Mediator ends on the first
day and he is allowed to go after the dispute is resolved. Second day’s
arrangements are made only to give feast to the oppressed party. The other
purpose is to come close to each other and to create a friendly environment
between both parties, so that they can forget the previous disputes. After the
feast is end, the guest party goes back to their home and marka comes to an end
with the end of dispute.
Advantages of Marka
§ It is a cheap and easy way to get justice.
§ Oppressed party can select the Mediator of
their own choice.
§ Disputes are resolved very quickly if both
parties are willing for agreement.
§ Punishments are given to provide justice.
§ It is totally free of cost. No cost is needed
as the fee for Mediator.
§ After the dispute is settled and agreement is
made, both parties are bound to accept the decision and not to violate the
decision. If any party doesn’t follow the decision and start fight again, that
party is considered guilty and all other people will favor the oppressed party.
That’s why there are very rare chances of violating the decision.
§ It is a very simple way to maintain peace in
the society.
Disadvantages
§ Dispute cannot be resolved until both parties
are willing for agreement.
§ Sometimes the Mediator is biased by keeping
in mind, the influence and power of a party.
§ Fines are very high. An ordinary person is
not able to pay the fine, that’s why it is very costly for him to forward his
decision to marka.
§ Irjaai/unborn girl is an inhumane punishment
given by the Mediator. It’s against law.
§ Arrangement of grand feast is very costly. A
poor person can’t afford it.
§ Sometimes the decisions made by Mediator are
violated after the agreement.
§ It’s very difficult for an ordinary man to
approach the Mediators and make them agree for making their decision.
In short we can say that marka is very
effective in resolving the dispute and maintaining the peace among the Baloch
tribes. But there are some loops and flaws that must be filled to make it more
effective.
6.4.3
Beh/Chari
Chari
is another type of informal means of social control. It is basically a tool,
used by jirga members or by the Mediator to prove that either the blamed person
is innocent or he has done the crime. The procedure starts from the crime. If
the criminal is unknown and the effected party blames someone for the crime
then the accused/blamed person is asked to walk through the fire to prove that
he is innocent. If the accused person walk through the fire and it makes no
mark on his feet, it means the blamed person is innocent and he has not done
the crime. If the fire makes mark on his feet, then is considered as a
criminal.
Procedure
Beh means fire at which the
person has to walk slowly. First of all a special type of wood is collected to
make the coal after that a maolvi is
called who is experienced and knows that what to recite. A hafiz e Quran cannot
do that after that a pit is dug having length of three steps and nine feet. The
wood is burnt in that pit and when the wood turns into blazing coal, the maolvi starts reciting something with
the green leaves of a tree named jaal in
his hands. With reciting the Quran paak
he also puts the leaves in the fire. He continues reciting until the leaves are
completely burnt. Then the maolvi
ends reciting and moves around the dig and put the other leaves in the fire. A
time comes when the fire stops burning the green leaves. The leaves remain
green. Then he makes the announcement that now the fire is ready to make
justice. Then the feet of accused are washed and Mediator (who is wadera of the
caste of effected party) check his feet that either his feet are already clear
or have any mark. Then the blamed person is brought near to the pit. Before he
starts walking on the coal, maolvi
asks the accused person to confess the crime if he has done it, otherwise the
fire takes no pity on anyone. If the person gets afraid of the and he has done
the crime then he accepts his crime and the procedure comes to an end. The
person who has not done the crime, never gets afraid of the fire because he
knows that he has done nothing wrong, that’s why the fire will not harm him.
Mostly the people don’t accept their crime and become ready to walk on it. When
the person is ready to walk on fire, he steps into the fire with the name of
ALLAH. He walks three steps and nine feet on the green leaves placed on the
blazing coal. Those leaves are placed in such way that the person can walk
three steps in the fire. Then the people
standing on the other bank of the pit, hold him in their hands as he comes out
from the fire. Then his feet are dipped in blood of freshly slaughtered goat or
sheep and he is asked to sit on a high place made for him to make his feet dry.
After his feet get dry, then his feet are washed with water and the Mediator
and other respected and well known people from both parties check his feet. If
fire affects him and makes mark on his feet it means that he has done the
crime. If his feet remain clear as earlier and fire doesn’t affect his feet, it
means that he is innocent. If the person is proved innocent, the affected party
asks the accused person for blaming him and the procedure is end. If the blamed
person is proved guilty, then it depends upon the guilty party to take further.
It may lead to further dispute or agreement if the both parties are ready.
This is a very useful tool in the case if the criminal is unknown. If
the accused person is proved then it’s easy for both parties to take further
action. It is practiced from years in that society, and it is a big threat for
the criminals. The fear of walking through fire keeps the people away from the
crimes, and peace is maintained.
Case
Study
A person of a tribe (mohma) named gull jan
was killed mysteriously, 6 years ago. The killer remained unknown for 5 years.
The people of mohma tribe blamed a person from sayed tribe named bahadur shah
for the murder. In the presence of mediator chari was arranged and bahadur shah
was asked to walk on the burning coal. After walking on burning coal there were
marks on his feet which showed that he was the murderer. The case was then
referred to jirga for justice.
6.4.4
Qasam/Quran
Qasam/Quraan is another tool to prove a blamed person as
innocent or criminal. Same like chari,
in the case of theft or murder the blamed/suspicious person is asked to take
oath to prove his innocence. If that person takes oath it proves that he is
innocent and if he doesn't takes oath he is asked to pass through chari system/beh. If the crime is proved he has to pay the cost.
First of all the effected party blames
someone for their harm and they claim that this person is responsible for the
crime. The effected party demands the blamed person to take oath by placing his
right hand on the Holy Quraan and to say that he has not done the crime. Any
mosque is selected for this occasion and wadera
of both parties and some respected members from both parties are also
called at the mosque. When all the people come there, the imam of the mosque
asks the blamed person that you are going to take a very huge step. If you have
done the crime then accept it and don’t waste your faith for this temporary
world. He also says that it’s our belief that if you have done the crime and
you take oath by placing hand on Holy Quraan and say that you have not done the
crime, then this Holy Quraan will effect and destroy your seven generations.
Prosperity will never come to you. If the accused person has done the crime and
he has faith in ALLAH, he will never tell a lie by taking oath, and he accepts
his crime and is proved as guilty. The person who becomes ready to take oath is
asked by the imam masjid to make
ablution. After he makes ablution, he is asked to cover his head with any cap
or cloth. Then the imam masjid and
the accused person enter the mosque. Blamed person is asked to stand in the
yard of mosque and Imam masjid comes
out with Holy Quraan in his hand. Then the blamed person is asked to place his
right hand on the Holy Quraan and take oath of ALLAH and say that he has not
done the crime he is blamed for. If he takes oath, he is considered innocent
and the effected party asks to forgive them for blaming him.
In this way the accused person is proved
guilty or innocent. Although it’s an effective way to prove the crime or
innocence of accused person but this practice is very rare as compared to chari
system. The other thing is, the study area is a small town and the surrounding
areas also consist of small villages and towns, that’s why mostly people know
each other. That’s why the criminals and enemies are known and this practice is
very rare, yet very effective in some cases.
6.4.5
Role of Leadership/Tribal Wadera
Wadera/head of tribal societies play a great
role in maintaining social order. As the study area is divided into many ethnic
groups based on caste, and every caste has its own identity, that’s why there
is wadera system that is prevailing very strongly. Every caste has its own
wadera who is representative of that caste for inter-societal problems and
conflicts. Wadera is not not just representative for external affairs of his
caste but he also plays a great role in intra-societal problems. In case of any
conflict between the people one caste/ethnic group, the case is referred to the
wadera. Wadera has his own Autak where both parties are called for resolving
the dispute and a neutral person is also called by wadera. That neutral person
must be the most respected and well known person of the society. He maybe the
imam masjid, a teacher or a landlord. In the presence of wadera and neutral
person, both parties are asked to give arguments. After listening arguments
from both sides the wadera asks the neutral person about his opinion. After
listening views from neutral person and both parties, the wadera makes decision
about the problem. He says to both parties that we all are brothers and we
should live like brothers. Small disputes occur in every society but you should
not take it too personal. He tells the both parties about his decision and
provides justice to the effected party. He then asks both parties to hug each
other and forgive each other. In this way the dispute is resolved and peace is
maintained within the society.
Inter-societal
Problems
As the research locale is divided into
different ethnic groups that’s why the ratio of disputes between two societies
is also very high. Leadership also plays its role in such disputes. Wadera is
representative of his caste in such problems. He always leads his society and
tell his people what to do next. Wadera is very responsible member of his
society and he never wants his caste to stay long in any conflict. He advises
every member to keep calm and not to create any violence. He always wants peace
for his society and all the people. But in some cases wadera are very ethnic
and violent in nature (such cases are very rare). That’s why the wadera is
responsible for maintaining peace with other societies.
6.4.6
Role of Religious Practitioners
Sometimes people refuse to accept the
decision of jirga due to certain reasons. Such decisions of dispute settlement
and justice are then made by a religious practitioner, who is mostly peer.
Here, people’ belief come into play. People believe that peer is a person who
is near to ALLAH more than a common man, so he will make the decision based on
justice. So, peer play a role as
mediator.
After the mutual consensus of both parties, a
peer is selected as a Mediator. Both parties are asked to come to the place of
Mediator wherever he lives. Both parties are bound to go to Mediator’s place on
the given date. After both parties arrive there, the Mediator listens to the
arguments from both parties. After listening their views, the Mediator tells
both parties about the decision and he makes fair decision based on justice
because he is a neutral man and both parties are unknown to him. It is also a
simple way of resolving disputes and maintaining peace in the society.
6.4.7
Women as a Symbol of Honor
Women play an important role in dispute
settlement. Women are considered as prestige and symbol of honor among baloch tribes. In case of long term
battles, the disputants go to the other group (who are affected) with few elder
and respectable women of that society, like wife of wadera, wife of molvi and
some other old women. Bringing their women with them means that they are Guilty
for what they have done, and they don’t want any more fight and want to resolve
the dispute. It is a famous proverb in
baloch tribes that; “if women go to another tribe (for dispute settlement)
the other party forgives even murder’’. This practice is very rare, because it
is also a symbol of insult for the tribe that goes to the others with their
females. But when the nature of dispute is very severe and there is no other
way to resolve the dispute and there is a threat for long life dispute and many
more murders, then this tool is practiced. That’s why this practice is not that
common. But it is very helpful and very
effective for settling long-term disputes and to maintain peace in the society.
Case
study
There was a conflict between two tribes Qasmani and Mirahmdani on the basis of land. Firstly the qasmani tribe killed a person of mirahmdani tribe and the conflict started. The conflict continued
for 9 years and 18 members were killed from both tribes. 10 from mirahmdani and 8 from qasmani. The qasmani tribe (who initiated the conflict) decided to end the
Conflict. They went to the other tribe
with their women and Holy Quraan and requested to end the conflict and to
forgive them and said that they are also ready to forgive their loss too.
Without any mediator the conflict was resolved and agreement was made. The both
tribes now have social interaction with each other.
6.4.8
Strict Punishments
Strict punishments are given in the case of
deviance and humiliating the norms and values of the society. Strictness of
punishments depends upon the nature of crime. Because of fear of such
punishments every members of the society try not to break the norms and values
of the society. Before doing any crime the criminal knows about the punishment
of what he going to do. This fear of strict punishments minimizes the ratio of
deviant behavior to a great extent and social control is maintained. Punishment
for having sexual relationship with women is murder for both male and female.
In case of elopement the amount of fine to be paid is 10 million rupees. If the
parents of girl don’t want to take fine and to make agreement then they will
kill the boy, the girl has gone with. Four months ago, a 26 years old boy was
killed for the case of elopements because the parents of girl were not willing
to make agreement with the next party. That’s why the cases of sexual relationships
and elopements are very rare in the society. It may happen only once in a year
or once in two or three years. The punishment for murder is either murder or 40
Lac rupees (amount may increase or decrease depending upon the nature of
conflict). These punishments are very high for an ordinary man that’s why
everyone avoids the conflicts, they have to pay for and pay very huge amount.
So, the strict punishments are also very effective and important in maintaining
social order among Baloch tribes.
6.4.9
Male Dominancy
In the area of study, male enjoys the power
of decision making and male is head of households. As a head of household, male
holds all the property. Respect of head of house is a considered as a norm. In
case of any deviant behavior of the family member, that member can be excluded
from property rights. In case of violating social norms, it is considered as an
insult of head of the house. For example if a person of any family is thief
then it is the insult for all family members, especially the head of the house.
Head of the house has great hold in his family and he is responsible for making
all the decisions related to family. Matters from outside the family like
property or politics are also decided by him. Females are not even asked in any
matter and they are not allowed to speak in any matter. This makes the society
as a male dominant society and through male dominancy peace is maintained
within the family, and definitely effects the condition of peace outside the
family and peace is maintained to some extent through male dominancy. If there
will be peace and control in every family, it will lead to the control in whole
society as well.
6.4.10
Religion
Religion is very important institution in all
Muslim societies. In the same way religious beliefs play an important role in
maintaining social order (to some extent). Some rituals like prayer and
festivals like eid-e-qurban and eid-ul-fitr bring people near to each other.
People pray five times in the mosque and interact with each other after the
prayer. At Friday, people come to say prayer in great number and there is a
chance of interaction between people that leads to the friendly relationship
between the people. In the same way at the occasion of Eid-ul-fitr and
Eid-e-qurbaan, great love and respect is seen between the people, which lead to
the harmony. Religious practitioners
play the role as mediator. They have a lot of respect in the society. People
ask them about the religious matters and they guide the people. Belief in one
God and the Day of Judgment is belief that keeps the people away from doing
sins and crimes. The fear of God (although it’s very rare) is helpful in
maintaining peace. Although it is a great fact that if all the people start
living their lives according to the teachings of Islam there will be no
deviance in the society but it is impossible. So we can say that religion is
also helpful in maintaining social order but it doesn’t helps too much.
6.4.11
Ethnicity
Strong ethnicity is very effective in
maintaining social order. Ethnicity creates an element of respect between
people. Helping out each other, coming close to each other and the sense of
same identity, creates harmony and unity among ethnic groups. The study area is
divided into different sub castes. Major caste is Khetran that has 56 sub castes. Each sub caste is known as ethnic
group, having different cultural patterns and lifestyle. That’s why people are
emotionally attached to their sub caste because of same identity. This
attachment creates strong bonds and harmony among the people of same caste.
Ethnicity also creates unity among the people. Ethnicity is mainly created
because of the caste system. People of same caste are very helpful and friendly
to each other. They always cooperate with each other. If any person in the
village have problem, the other people are willing for his help him and they
always help him out. If a single person of the village has dispute with any
person from outside, it means two castes have dispute with each other because
the dispute of a single person is considered as the dispute of whole community.
Such type of strong bonds and harmony within the community leads to peace and
social control among that society.
6.4.12
Culture
Culture of Baloch tribes is very diverse in
its nature and many aspects of culture play an important role in maintaining
social control. Religion is most important, which provides a base for unity and
common social order. Baloch people are known for their hospitality. Guest is
accorded is held in high esteem and considered as blessing from God. Better off
people even slaughter sheep or goat for their guest. Sometimes, it so happens
that where there are more houses, the guest is assumed to be the guest of the
whole village. This openheartedness is the loving feature of the tribal people.
Faithfulness and sincerity in all relationships is another adorable feature of
this tribe. People always remain loyal and sincere towards each other. They are
very helpful to each other. Poor and needy people are helped by the rich ones.
They have frequent interaction with each other which leads towards unity and
peace among the tribe.
6.4.13
Livelihood
Agriculture and animal rearing are the common
ways of livelihood. Agricultural products and animals are sold in the same
market. So, the people from every tribe try to avoid from the severe conflicts
to keep their livelihood alive. Every person knows that they have a common
market for sale and purchase of agricultural and other products. They know that
if we are going to have any serious conflict with any other tribe, they have to
face a lot of problems. Tribes are located very near to each other; even the
way to market of different tribes is also same. In case of any conflict between
two tribes they can’t use that way to market because they have threat of being
killed. After any conflict the oppressed party submits F.I.R against the other
party. The nominated persons in F.I.R cannot go to market. This is also a big
threat and loss of their economy. This fear keeps the people away from severe
disputes. That’s how the livelihood functions to control the societies.
6.4.14
Weapons
Weapons are considered as a symbol of
prestige and present in every household. If someone has weapons in his house he
is considered rich. Having weapons in the house means, they can use it if
needed. This thought (that conflict will result in use of weapons) minimizes
the conflict. Every person is aware of the fact that the person I am going to
fight with, has weapons and the dispute may lead to the use of weapons. It is
also a fact that no one avoids to use weapons, if it comes to their prestige.
That’s why the threat of use of weapons keeps people away from severe disputes
and society remains under control.
Functions
of Weapons
§ Symbol of prestige.
§ Used at marriages or happy events.
§ Nishana bazi.
§ Used for prey.
§ Chokidaari/pehra defence.
§ Used for murder.
6.4.15
Music
Folk music is a way of entertainment. People
are very keen to listen that music. Music parties are arranged occasionally or
at marriage ceremonies. During social gatherings at such occasions, people from
different regions meet with each other and have informal conversations. Such
gatherings create harmony between people resulting in social order.
All these informal means of control play a
vital control in regulating the behavior of the society and maintaining social
order.
6.4.16
Justice
Justice is a very important aspect of social
control provided by informal control system. Jirga, marka, strict punishments,
beh/chari and the role of leadership are tools for providing justice to the
society. Provision of justice is made sure before making any decision. This
makes the informal control system more effective as compared to the formal
control system. After the case is given to the jirga it is their duty to provide timely justice to
the clients and to punish the guilty party. Justice is also cheap. No money is
needed for the jirga. That’s how the justice is provided through informal
control system.
6.4.17
Conflict Resolution
There are many ways for conflict resolution
in informal control system and all of them are very helpful and effective in
dispute resolution. Disputes can be resolved very easily if both of parties are
willing. Mediators, marka and jirga are the tools for conflict resolution.
Punishment is also given during conflict resolution that makes it more
effective. That’s why the bloody wars and other conflicts are resolved quickly
and social order is maintained.
6.4.18
Negative Aspect of Informal Control System
Although informal control system has core
importance in controlling the society but there are some loops and flaws that
are needed to be covered. Bribery is one of them. Favor and biased decisions
are the other one. No relationship with formal control system is also a negative
point. It shows that despite of their key role, informal control system is not
100% accurate. Some points are needed to be improved in order to make that
system more effective and helpful for the maintenance of social order.
6.4.19
People perception about formal and informal means of control
Table 4
|
Peoples level of satisfaction with respect
to means of social control
|
To great extent (%)
|
To some extent (%)
|
Not at all
(%)
|
|
Informal Means (like jirga, cultural norms
etc)
|
92
|
8
|
0
|
|
Formal Means (like political
administration, government institutions etc)
|
0
|
10
|
90
|
|
Both
|
15
|
10
|
0
|
(Source: interviews)
According to the data collected during field
work it is evident that informal means of control are more important in
regulating the behavior of society as compared to formal means of control. This
also shows the people perception. Almost all of the interviewees are not
satisfied with the performance of formal means because of their ineffectiveness
in maintaining social order. Injustice or late justice of courts, use of
bribery in formal control system, negative impact about the government and
ineffectiveness of armed forces are the main reasons behind negative perception
about formal system.
On the other hand people have strong belief
in informal means of control regarding social control in the society. They
believe that informal control system is the only reason of social order
maintained in the society. 90% of the interviewees told that informal control
system is best for controling the society. 10% people stated that both system
are good in maintaining social order but informal means of control also have
loops and flaws that are needed to be covered and 100% were not satisfied with
the performance of formal control system.
Conclusion
Keeping in view, the findings and data
collected during field work it has been evident that both formal and informal
means of control are practiced in the area of study but, informal control
system has key importance in controlling the society. On the other hand formal
control system is not effective enough. Despite informal control system is also
not 100% accurate, yet it is inevitable to be practiced in the society to
maintain social order. Informal control system is a traditional system of that
society which makes it more important for the tribal people. They consider it
as heritage by their forefathers. Ineffectiveness of formal means of control is
also a reason behind the importance of informal control system. So, without
informal means of social control it’s impossible to maintain social order in
that society. But there are some loops and flaws in informal control system
like bribery, irjaai, and biasness that must be filled to make them more effective
and reliable for the people. An ordinary person must have easy approach to this
control system. Formal means of control should also function effectively to
make society run more smoothly.
Challenges
Faced
Literature review according to the topic was
very hard to find. This challenge was tackled by reading different books on baloch culture that helped a lot.
Photography was another challenge during the field work because of norms,
values and restrictions of the study area. (tackled through decessive approach).
Meeting the leaders for interview was also a challenge because they had no time
or very less time. (used the reference of wadera
of my tribe to tackle the problem).
Glossary
Balochka nizam A cultural name of informal
control system
Kokiani A baloch tribe
Qasmaani A baloch tribe
Mazrani A baloch tribe
Jhamat A segment within a
tribe having a common ancestor
Lohaar A segment within a tribe having a
common ancestor
Gadai A name of village
Jirga Assembly of
elders for decision making and conflict resolution
Beh/chari A tool to prove accused
person as innocent or criminal/mujrim
Qasam/quran Taking oath by placing hand
on Quran the holy book
Quraan A holy book of
muslims sent by ALLAH to his prophet (P.B.U.H)
Marka Asking the client
for forgiveness for the crime or mistake
Chatti Amount of fine to
be given as punishment
Peer Religious
practitioner
Molvi Religious
practitioner
Sardar Head of many castes
Wadera Tribal leader/ head
of the tribe
Motbir Head of a segment, within a
tribe
Zameendar Landlord
Autak Guest house
Garrwali To embrace someone
Patki Turban, a symbol
respect
Eid-ul-fitr A religious festival
Eid-ul-azha A religious festival
Sijji A cultural dish made by meat of mutton or
chicken
Sobat A cultural dish
Zann Female
Topi Cultural cap
Norozi cultural shoes, a
part of dress pattern
Shalwar Part of dress wears as trouser but with full
length and large width
Kameez Shirt
Sulah Agreement
Qehva Black tea
Makhan A food made by milk
Lassi A drink made by
milk
Mujrim A person who have done the crime
Mulzim Accused person
Kala A person who has
illegal sexual relations with a girl
Kali A girl who has
illegal sexual relations with a boy
Zaat Sub caste
Qaom Caste
Irjaai Unborn girl that has
to be given to client party as punishment
Raind Cultural dance
Autak Guest room
Haji Pilgrim
Char
dewari Boundary wall of the house
Kala
pahar Black mountain
Marri A Baloch tribe
Bibliography
American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Jan., 1919), pp. 423-453
Anderson, M.L.
and Taylor, H.F. (2009). Sociology: The essentials.
Becker, Howard S.(1963). Outsiders: Studies in the
sociology of deviance. New York: Free Press.
Bryman A., 2008, Social
Research Methods, Third Edition, Oxford University Press
Durkheim, Emile. (1947). The division of labor in
society. Translated by George Simpson. New York: Free
Press.
Harriet Zuckerman "Deviant Behavior and Social Control in
Science" (pp. 87-138 in Deviance and Social Change , Sage Publications,
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Mead, George Herbert. (1925).
The genesis of the self and social control. International Journal of
Ethics 35.3 (April): 251–277.
Pound, Roscoe. (1996). Social control through law. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Social Problems, Vol. 49, No. 4
(November 2002), pp. 585-604
Ben-Yehuda Nachman,
(1985), Deviance and moral boundaries,
The Univ. of Chicago Press.
Durkheim,
Emile. (1950) The Rules of
Sociological Method. Translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H.
Mueller. New York: The Free Press.
Morris, Janowitz. (Jul 1975).
"Sociological Theory and Social Control". American Journal of Sociology, The University of Chicago Press.
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.
Interview
Guide
Personal Information
Ø What is your name?
Ø What is your father’s name?
Ø What is your caste?
Ø What is your sub caste?
Ø Which segment do you belong?
Ø What is your age?
Ø What is your occupation?
Ø Are you married or single?
Ø What type of marriage endogamy or exogamy?
Ø If married, how many kids you have?
Ø Which sect do you belong?
Ø What is your qualification?
Ø Which facilities you have?
Ø Which problems you are facing?
Ø Do you have any weapon? If yes, why?
Interviews
Ø What are the major problems of your society?
Ø What kind of conflicts, occur in your
society?
Ø What is the overall condition of social
order?
Ø What is the reason behind all conflicts?
Ø What is the role of formal means of control
in maintaining social order?
Ø Is formal control system enough to maintain
social control? Why if yes or no?
Ø Are you satisfied with performance of police,
levies, FC and courts etc? Why if yes or no?
Ø What is role of informal control system in
maintaining social order?
Ø What is jirga?
Ø What is the structure of jirga?
Ø How the decisions are made in Jirga?
Ø Which people are members of Jirga?
Ø Why only those people are selected as member
of jirga?
Ø Is there any political influence in jirga?
Ø What is the process to replace any member in
case of death?
Ø Is it necessary to accept the decision of
jirga?
Ø What in case, if someone refuses to accept
the decision?
Ø What type of punishments are given by jirga?
Ø Are you satisfied with performance of jirga?
Ø What are advantages of jirga?
Ø What are disadvantages of jirga?
Ø Do you think jirga is necessary for
maintaining peace in the society?
Ø What is marka?
Ø How it starts initially?
Ø What is the process of marka?
Ø Who is selected as mediator and why?
Ø What is the role of mediator in marka?
Ø Is marka effective in maintaining peace?
Ø What is your opinion about marka?
Ø Any suggestion you want to give?
Ø What is chari?
Ø Why is it practiced?
Ø What is the process?
Ø This is effective or not?
Ø What is your perception? Any suggestion?
Ø What is qasam?
Ø Why it is given?
Ø Is this effective or not?
Ø What is your perception?
Ø What is role of leadership in maintaining
peace?
Ø Which kind of relationship you have, with
your wadera?
Ø Is your wadera, helpful to you or not?
Ø What is the hierarchy of leaders in this
tribe?
Ø Who is motbir and zameendar?
Ø What is the role of motbir and zameendar in
your tribe?
Ø Is there any religious practitioner in your
village?
Ø What is the role of religious practitioner in
maintaining peace in the society?
Ø What is the status of women in your society?
Ø Why a woman is known as a symbol of honor
among Baloch tribes?
Ø What is the punishment of having illegal
relationship with a woman?
Ø What kinds of punishments are given in
overall informal control system?
Ø What is chatty and irjaai?
Ø Who is head of your household? Male or
female?
Ø How the head of household controls a family?
Ø Is there any influence of female in decision
making about the family matters?
Ø Is religion effective for maintaining social
control?
Ø How ethnicity creates strong bonds among
tribal people?
Ø What is your reaction in case of any outside
threat?
Ø What are the main features of your culture?
Ø Do the conflicts affect your livelihood?
Ø What do you do to keep your livelihood alive?
Ø Do you have weapons? If yes, what are their
functions?
Ø Does the informal control system provide you
justice?
Ø What is your perception about formal and
informal control system?
Ø Any suggestions?
