Syntax - Advance English sentence structure

Syntax - Advance English sentence structure

Introduction: This page contains some basic information about sentence structure (syntax) and sentence types. It also includes examples of common sentence problems in written English. ESL students who understand the information on this page and follow the advice have a better chance of writing well. Definition: Linguists have problems in agreeing how to define the word sentence. For this web page, sentence will be taken to mean: 'a sequence of words whose first word starts with a capital letter and whose last word is followed by an end punctuation mark (period/full stop or question mark or exclamation mark)'. On the basis of this definition, some of the sentences written by ESL students (indeed by all writers) will be correct, and other sentences will be problematic. Good readers (English teachers, for example!) can quickly see the difference between a correct and a problematic sentence.

Subject/predicate: All sentences are about something or someone. The something or someone that the sentence is about is called the subject of the sentence. In the following sentences the subjects are shown in red. Note how the subject is often, but not always, the first thing in the sentence. John often comes late to class. My friend and I both have a dog named Spot. Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by a tsunami in 2004. The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down to make way for a new supermarket. Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with long blue tail feathers. The grade 7 Korean boy who has just started at FIS speaks excellent English. On Saturdays I never get up before 9 o'clock. Before giving a test the teacher should make sure that the students are well-prepared. Lying on the sofa watching old films is my favourite hobby.

The predicate contains information about the someone or something that is the subject. The example sentences above are shown again, this time with the predicate marked in green. John often comes late to class. My friend and I both have a dog named Spot. Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by a tsunami in 2004. The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down to make way for a new supermarket. Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with long blue tail feathers. The grade 7 Korean boy who has just started at FIS speaks excellent English. On Saturdays I never get up before 9 o'clock. Before giving a test the teacher should make sure that the students are well-prepared. Lying on the sofa watching old films is my favourite hobby.

Simple subject/predicate: As you can see from the example sentences above both the subject and the predicate can consist of many words. The simple subject is the main word in the subject, and the simple predicate is the mainword in the predicate. The simple subject is always a noun/pronoun and the simple predicate is always a verb. In the following sentences the simple subject is shown in red and the simple predicate is shown in green. My ESL teacher speaks a little Russian. The young girl with the long black hair fell from her bike yesterday in heavy rain. At the back of the line in the cafeteria yesterday was a large brown dogwith a yellow collar around its neck! My friend and I are going on holiday together this year. Your mother or your father must come to the meeting. Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with long blue tail feathers. From the last three examples sentences above you will notice that the simple subjects and simple predicates can be more than one word.

Advice: To write strong, clear sentences you must know who or what you are writing about (subject) and what you want to say about them or it (predicate). Your writing will be more interesting if the subject is not the first thing in every sentence you write. .

Sentence types: One way to categorize sentences is by the clauses they contain. (A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.) Here are the 4 sentence types: Simple: Contains a single, independent clause. I don't like dogs. Our school basketball team lost their last game of the season 75-68. The old hotel opposite the bus station in the center of the town is probably going to be knocked down at the end of next year.

Compound: Contains two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction. (The most common coordinating conjunctionsare: but, or, and, so. Remember: boas.) I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats. You can write on paper, or you can use a computer. A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured.

Complex: Contains an independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses. (A dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction. Examples: that, because, while, although, where, if.) I don't like dogs that bark at me when I go past. She did my homework, while her father cooked dinner. You can write on paper, although a computer is better if you want to correct mistakes easily. Note: A dependent clause standing alone without an independent clause is called a fragment sentence - see below.

Compound-complex: Contains 3 or more clauses (of which at least two are independent and one is dependent). I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they make her sneeze. You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can easily correct your mistakes. A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured, although many of them were in classrooms at the top of the building.

Advice: Writing that contains mostly short, simple sentences can be uninteresting or even irritating to read. Writing that consists of mostly long, complex sentences is usually difficult to read. Good writers, therefore, use a variety of sentence types. They also occasionally start complex (or compound-complex) sentences with the dependent clause and not the independent clause. In the following examples the dependent clause

MODIFIERS

MODIFIERS

A word or group of words that describes or limits a verb, noun, adjective, oradverb.  Modifiers applied to nouns are adjectives. Modifiers applied to verbsor adjectives are     adverb Those that are applied to adverbs themselves arealso called  adverbs.

To modify is to change slightly, so a modifier is anything that makes this change. Modifiers are popular in grammar land, but you could say that chocolate is a mood modifier, for example. An editor, who alters a few sentences, can be described as a modifier of the original manuscript. In the world of science, a modifier is a kind of gene that changes the effect of another gene. Modifier comes from the Latin word modificare, "to limit or restrain."

MISPLACED MODIFIERS

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word it modifies / describes.

Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward, ridiculous, or confusing.  Furthermore, they can be downright illogical.

Examples of Misplaced Modifiers

Sentences would be pretty boring without modifiers to provide excitement and intrique. Would you rather read a sentence with modifiers that says "Hoping to win friends and influence people, the award-winning new celebrity handed out shiny red Porsches at the exciting awards show" or "The celebrity handed out Porsches."

Purpose of Modifiers

When modifiers are misplaced or put in the wrong place, things can get quite confusing! Just imagine if the sentence read:

"Hoping to win friends and influence people, porsches red and shiny handed out a celebrity new."

This second sentence seems farfetched but, misplaced modifiers do commonly occur.

A modifier adds detail or limits or changes the meaning of another word or phrase. For example:

·         Happy

·         Pretty

·         Silly

·         Crazy

·         Hopeful

·         Fast

·         Slow

·         Very

·         Much

·         Many

You can identify a modifier by its function in the sentence- is it providing information, adding detail or describing something else? If so, it is probably a modifier.

Placing Modifiers Correctly

Once you have identified a modifier, you need to identify the person, place or thing that it is modifying. Modifiers usually have to accompany the thing they are modifying or go as close to it as possible.

Adjective Modifiers

Adjectives typically go before the words they are modifying, or after with helping verbs. For example:

·         The pretty girl

·         The girl was pretty.

In the first example, pretty is an adjective modifying the noun girl. In the second example, was is a helping verb and prettyis again an adjective modifying girl.

Adverb Modifiers

Adverbs can go before or after the thing they are modifying, depending on what exactly is it they are modifying.  For example:

·         The very pretty girl

·         He ran quickly

In the first example, the adverb very is modifying the adjective pretty which is modifying the noun girl. In the second example, the adverb quickly is modifying the verb ran.

When you have a single adjective or adverb, misplaced modifiers rarely occur since they would immediately sound incorrect. However, when a modifying phrase is used, misplaced modifiers become more common.

Confusion of Misplaced Modifiers

Like adjectives or adverbs, modifying phrases must accompany or go as close as possible to the thing they are modifying. If they don't, a misplaced modifier occurs.

Here are some examples of misplaced modifiers and corrections:

Example #1

Misplaced modifier:

·         Eagerly awaiting her birthday, Mary's presents were all picked up and admired by Mary many times throughout the course of the day.

Here, this sentence makes it seem as though Mary's presents were eagerly awaiting Mary's birthday. Since presents can't exhibit the emotion of feeling eager, it is unlikely that this modifier is written correctly. The most logical explanation is thatMary was eagerly awaiting her own birthday.

Correction: The modifier should be modifying Mary and the sentence should be rewritten:

·         Eagerly awaiting her birthday, Mary picked up and admired her presents many times throughout the day.

Example #2

Misplaced modifier:

·         Tired of all of the nights in hotels, Mitch's delight was felt by Mitch when his boss finally said he didn't have to travel anymore.

Here, Mitch's delight is being modified by the phrase tired of all of the nights in hotels. Unfortunately, Mitch's delight can't be tired of this because Mitch's delight isn't a person. Instead, it is more likely that Mitch himself is tired.

Correction: We can correct this sentence by moving the proper subject next to the modifier:

·         Tired of all of the nights in hotels, Mitch was delighted when his boss finally said he didn't have to travel anymore.

Example #3

Misplaced modifier:

·         She served sandwiches to the children on paper plates.

Correction:

·         She served the children sandwiches on paper plates.

·         e reported that three offices were stolen.

Know how to fix a misplaced modifier.

To fix the error, locate the modifier next to the appropriate word:

We anxiously watched the weather report for information about the hurricane churning in the Atlantic Ocean.

Raymond wore his one collared shirt, which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard, to the job interview.

Professor Jones waited for the slacker student who was late with another essay.

DANGLING MODIFIERS

A dangling modifier (a specific case of which is the dangling participle) is an ambiguous grammatical construct, whereby a grammaticalmodifier could be misinterpreted as being associated with a word other than the one intended, or with no particular word at all.

Examples of Dangling Modifiers

A modifier does exactly what it sounds like: it changes, alters, limits, or adds more info to something else in the sentence. A modifier is considered dangling when the sentence isn't clear about what is being modified. For example, "The big" doesn't make sense without telling what is big which leaves "big" as a dangling modifier; but, "the big dog" is a complete phrase.

How Modifiers Dangle

Since a modifier has to more information about something, by definition that means the something it is modifying or limiting has to exist. That means, of course, that you can't just say The happy. If you did, people would immediately ask you: "the happy what?" That missing what is the thing being modified.

It seems pretty obvious and intuitive when written in a simple sentence, and it seems hard to imagine a situation in which a modifier would be left dangling. However, modifiers don't always have to be simple words or phrases like happy, and sentences aren't always simple.

Phrases can also act as modifiers, providing additional information about something else in the sentence. When this occurs, and when sentences become more complex, dangling modifiers can sometimes exist and get lost in the complexity of the language.

Correcting Dangling Modifiers

·         Hoping to garner favor, my parents were sadly unimpressed with the gift.

Problem: This is a dangling modifier because we do not know who or what was hoping to garner favor. It is unlikely that the parents were hoping to garner favor, since they wouldn't have given an unimpressive gift to themselves.

Correction: This sentence could be corrected by adding a proper subject, or identifying the person who was hoping to win over the parents

Introduction

INTRODUCTION

Stylistics, a yoking of style and linguistics, is a discipline which has been approached from many perspectives. Its meaning varies, based on the theory that is adopted. When we carry out the different activities that are connected to our area of business, either in spoken or written forms, we often use devices of thought and the rules of language, but there are variations so as to change meanings or say the same thing in different ways. This is what the concept of style is based upon: the use of language in different ways, all for the purpose of achieving a common goal - to negotiate meanings.

MAIN CONTENT

Stylistics is a broad term that has assumed different meanings from different linguistic scholars. But it can simply be said to be the study of style. Style on its own as defined by Lucas (1955:9) is: the effective use of language, especially in prose, whether to make statements or to rouse emotions. It involves first of all the power to put fact with clarity and brevity.

Style has also been defined as the description and analysis of the variability forms of linguistic items in actual language use. Leech (1969: 14) quotes Aristotle as saying that “the most effective means of achieving both clarity and diction and a certain dignity is the use of altered from of words.” Stylistics is also defined as a study of the different styles that are present in either a given utterance or a written text or document. The consistent appearance of certain structures, items and elements in a speech, an utterance or in a given text is one of the major concerns of Stylistics. Stylistics requires the use of traditional levels of linguistic description such as sounds, form, structure and meaning. It then follows that the consistent appearance of certain structures, items and elements in speech utterances or in a given text is one of the major concerns of stylistics. Linguistic Stylistic studies is concerned with the varieties of language and the exploration of some of the formal linguistic features which characterize them. The essence and the usefulness of stylistics is that it enables the immediate understanding of utterances and texts, thereby maximizing our enjoyment of the texts. The concepts of style and stylistic variation in language are based on the general notion that within the language system, the content can be encoded in more than one linguistic form. Thus, it is possible for it to operate at all linguistic levels such as phonological, lexical and syntactic. Therefore, style may be regarded as a choice of linguistic means, as deviation from the norms of language use, as recurrent features of linguistic forms and as comparisons. Stylistics deals with a wide range of language varieties and styles that that are possible in creating different texts, whether spoken or written, monologue or dialogue, formal or informal, scientific or religious etc. Again, stylistics is concerned with the study of the language of literature or the study of the language habits of particular authors and their writing patterns. From the foregoing, stylistics can be said to be the techniques of explication which allows us to define objectively what an author has done, (linguistic or non-linguistic), in his use of language. The main aim of stylistics is to enable us understand the intent of the author in the manner the information has been passed across by the author or writer. Therefore, stylistics is concerned with the examination of grammar, lexis, semantics as well as phonological properties and discursive devices. Stylistics is more interested in the significance of function that the chosen style fulfils.

 Style as Choice

While examining the concept stylistics, it is equally essential to give attention to the notion of choice. Choice is a very vital instrument of stylistics since it deals with the variations and the options that are available to an author. Since language provides its users with more than one choice in a given situation, there are different choices available to the writer in a given text. This then depends on the situation and genre the writer chooses in expressing thoughts and opinions. Traugott and Pratt (1980: 29 – 30) clarify the connection between language and choice as the characteristic choices exhibited in a text. With the writer’s choice, there is a reflection of his ego and the social condition of his environment. In determining the appropriate choice of linguistic elements, two important choice planes are open to the writer: the paradigmatic and the syntagmatic. The paradigmatic axis is also referred to as the vertical or choice axis while the syntagmatic is the horizontal axis. The vertical axis gives a variety of choices between one item and other items; the writer then chooses the most appropriate word. Thus, the paradigmatic axis is able to account for the given fillers that occupy a particular slot while still maintaining the structure of the sentence. At the paradigmatic level, for example, a writer or speaker can choose between “start” and “commence”, “go” and “proceed.”

 Style as the Man

This is based on the notion that every individual has his or her own unique way of doing things and that no two persons are of exactly the same character. There are always distinctive features that distinguish one person from the other; thus in literary style, one is able to differentiate between the writings of Soyinka and Achebe, based on their use of language, among other things. A person’s style may also be shaped by his social and political background, religious inclination, culture, education, geographical location, etc. Simply put, the notion of style as the man sees style as an index of personality. But this perspective is not without its own problems. For example, one may exhibit different styles on different occasions; when this happens, do we say the writer has different personalities?

 Style as Deviation

When an idea is presented in a way that is different from the expected way, then we say such a manner of carrying it out has deviated from the norm. The concept of style as deviation is based on the notion that there are rules, conventions and regulations that guide the different activities that must be executed. Thus, when these conventions are not complied with, there is deviation. Deviation in stylistics is concerned with the use of different styles from the expected norm of language use in a given genre of writing. It is a departure from what is taken as the common practice. Language deviation refers to an intentional selection or choice of language use outside of the range of normal language. Language is a system organized in an organic structure by rules and it provides all the rules for its use such as phonetic, grammatical, lexical, etc. Thus, any piece of writing or material that has intentionally jettisoned the rules of language in some way is said to have deviated. Stylistics helps to identify how and why a text has deviated. Trangott and Pratt (1980: 31) believe that the idea of style as deviance is favoured by the “generative frame of reference.” It is an old concept which stems from the work of such scholars as Jan Mukarovsky. Mukarovsky relates style to foregrounding and says that “the violation of the norm of the standard… is what makes possible the poetic utilization of language” (see Traugott and Pratt 1980: 31).

 Deviation may occur at any level of language description e.g. phonological, graphological, syntactic, lexico-semantic, etc. At the graphological level, for example, we may see capital letters where they are not supposed to be. At the syntactic level, subject and verb may not agree in number. Or the normal order of the clause elements may not be observed e.g. Adjunct may come before the subject. At the lexico-semantic level, words that should not go together may be deliberately brought together. e.g. “dangerous safety,” “open secret.”

Style as Conformity

Style as conformity can be seen as the first available option for a writer to express himself. This is so because virtually all possible fields that a written material can belong to have been established. Any style that is distinct is so as a result of deviation. In fact, it is on the notion of “style as conformity” that the idea of “style as choice” operates and then results in or brings out the possibility of style as deviation. That is, a writer needs, first of all, to decide whether to conform with the established style or to deviate. It is not in all situations that a writer enjoys flexibility to deviate. Style as conformity is often “strictly enforced” in certain fields or circumstances. This is often in academic/educational field as regard students’ research projects. It is also found so in some professional writings, where a considerable conformity to the established format or diction is expected for a text to earn acceptability. One major weakness of conformity to the established style is that it clips creativity. But the moment a text accommodates or injects some creativity in the style, it becomes marked as deviation from the norm.

 Style as Period or Time

Style may also relate to time/period. This is so because language is dynamic – it is always changing. This becomes obvious when we look at the stages in the development of the English language e.g. Old English, Middle English and Modern English. When we look at a script in Old English now, it will seem as if it were written in a different language because of the differences in syntax, vocabulary, spelling, etc. Even within the so-called Modern English, there are variations. The type of English we use today is different from Shakespearean English in many ways. So, since language changes along time axis, style is also expected to vary along the same axis. The study of language along time axis is termed diachronic linguistics. You may compare diachronic linguistics with synchronic linguistics which deals with the study of language at a particular time/period. The style of any given period has recognizably predominant features that make such a period distinct. A period usually dictates the style employed by the writers. For example,

 Shakespeare and his contemporaries used a particular style of writing i.e. writing in verses. It was not until Herik Ibsen came up with plays in the prose form that the previous style was abandoned. Similarly, the Victorian, Elizabethan, Renaissance and even the modern periods all have peculiar styles different from another. In a nutshell, the noticeable convention and pattern of language use that inform the urge of a particular period, make the style of that period.

 Style as Situation

Usually, language is used according to situation or circumstance. It is the context that determines language choice in speaking or writing. Certain words are appropriate for certain occasions, while some are considered taboo, vulgar or abominable. For example, a Professor, in a scholarly conference, cannot indulge in a vulgarism like: “that theory is fucking up”. Consequently, a given situation has a great influence on the choice made at every level of language description. The concept of register further buttresses this point. For example, registers as aspect of style tend to be associated with particular groups of people or sometimes specific situations of use (Journalese, Legalese, Liturgese, Babytalk, the language of Sport Commentaries), the language of criminals –argot, the languages of the courtroom, the classroom, etc). We shall say more about register, later in this course.

What is Stylistics?

Since its emergence as a significant academic field within the scope of linguistics in the 1960s, stylistics has continued to attract intellectual attention of varying degrees. Several meanings and theories of stylistics exist in linguistic scholarship (Crystal and Davy, 1969, Fowler, 1975 and Wales, 2001 etc.). While some see stylistics as a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of varieties of language, its properties, principles behind choice, dialogue, accent, length and register (Bradford, 1979 and Downes, 1998), others insist that it attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular [style] choices used by individuals and social groups in their use of language (Turner, 1973, Birch, 1995 and Fowler, 1998 etc.).

Cv of Mr.Kashif Iqbal

KASHIF IQBAL  

MDA Road Near Nishat Science College Iqbal Colony Multan

Cell # 0307-5253457, 0313-7531084

 

OBJECT:                                                                                                    

Seeking a challenging position in a progressive organization with an aim to contribute positively towards the achievement of its objectives to the best of my capabilities and to develop and improve my professional skills.

PERSONAL DATA:                                                                                     

Father’s Name                :                  Ghulam Farid

Date of Birth                  :                  13-12-1993

Domicile                         :                  Multan (Punjab)

CNIC No.                        :                  36302-4428161-5

Religion                          :                  Islam

Martial Status                :                  Single

Nationality                     :                  Pakistani

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION:                                                                    

Degree	Marks	Division	Board/University
Matriculation	570/1050	2nd Div	B.I.S.E Multan
DAE (Electrical)	2279/3550	1st Div	P.B.T.E Lahore

COMPUTER KNOWLEDGE:                                                                        

·                                       1 year computer Diploma from “The Eagle Institute Multan”

·                                       1 year PGD/DIT Diploma form “Ali Garh College Multan”

·                                       MS Word

·                                       MS Office

·                                       MS Power Point

·                                       In Page

·                                       MS Excel

EXPERIENCE:                                                                                           

·         3 year experience as Computer Operator in Al Fareed Computer Center Pakistan.

SKILLS:                                                                                                     

·         Good Speaking

·         Hard work

LANGUAGE:                                                                                              

·         English

·         Urdu

·         Hindi

HOBBIES:                                                                                                  

·                                                         Traveling

·                                                         Reading Books

·                                                         Reading Newspapers

·                                                         Playing Cricket

REFERENCE:                                                                                            

                   Reference will be provided own your demand.